Glass is a material that, by some properties, has no analogues. Until now, natural ingredients have been used for its production; the reprocessing of damaged products can occur repeatedly without loss of quality and almost without waste.
Definition
Glass can be in several states of aggregation at different stages of production. And yet, glass - what is it and what is it made of?
According to the scientific definition, glass is any amorphous body obtained by the melt method, which, with increasing viscosity, acquires the properties of a solid. Moreover, the process of transition from one state to another is reversible.
Material History
In everyday life, we use glass daily. What is it and what it is made of - these are questions rarely asked in modern times, the material is so familiar to us. Scientists believe that glass was first obtained by chance, it is impossible to trace the origin of technology. The first products date back to about 2540 BC. In the ancient recipe there were three components - soda, sand and alumina. Later we learned to improve the properties of the material by adding chalk, dolomite and other components to the main ingredients. The whole composition from which the glass is boiled is called a charge.
Stained glass began to be obtained using natural pigments - chromium oxides, nickel oxide, cobalt additives. The first molded product was obtained in the 1st century AD by Roman craftsmen. They invented sheet glass. The technology for the production of glass in sheets consisted of blowing a huge, human growth cylindrical bubble from a hot mass. Until it cools down, it was cut along the long part and laid out on pallets for leveling. This technique was ubiquitous until the beginning of the 20th century. In Russia, glass production was opened in the 17th century and was located in the village of Dukhanin, at that time only foreigners were craftsmen.
Composition
For many purposes, glass is used. What is glass, we have understood, and what are its main ingredients? The composition of the starting ingredients for the entire period of practice of manufacturing the material has not changed. The three main components make up the base (charge) - it is silica or quartz sand, soda (sodium oxide) and calcium oxide, known as lime. The components are combined in certain proportions and melted in an oven at a temperature of 300 to 2500 ° C. The composition of the charge, depending on the desired properties, is added to potash, boric anhydride, broken glass from previous brewing or raw materials from recycling.
Technology
To enhance or weaken the properties of the compounds, amplifiers, silencers, dyes, bleaches, etc. are added to the melting process. After cooking, the mass is rapidly cooled, which avoids the formation of crystals. Of all the components, the largest percentage in the recipe is sand - from 60 to 80%. Sand acts as a skeleton around which a glassy material is formed. Glass manufacturing technology has remained unchanged for centuries.
Lime is another component without which glass is not made. What is calcium oxide in ingredients? This component gives the material chemical resistance and enhances gloss. Glass can be melted only from sand and soda, but without lime it will dissolve in water. The third player in the composition of the charge is a metal oxide - sodium or potassium (up to 17%). The mixture is introduced in the form of soda ash or potash. These components reduce the melting point, allowing individual grains of sand to completely melt and combine into a monolith.
Kinds
Depending on the components used in the mixture, the types of glass are divided:
- Quartz. It is made from one component - silica. It has high qualities: resistant to high temperature (up to 1000 ° C) and thermal shock, transmits visible and ultraviolet radiation spectrum. Production is associated with high energy costs, because silica (silicate glass) is a refractory raw material and is difficult to mold. The main areas of application are chemical and laboratory glassware, parts of optical systems, mercury lamps, etc.
- Sodium silicate. It is made of two components, the composition of the glass is silicate sand and soda (1: 3). According to its properties, it is widely used in industry as a component of any process, but is not used in other areas, products from it are not made. The main disadvantage is that it is soluble in water.
- Lime. The most common type of material from which most products are made is sheet glass, glass containers, mirror cloth, dishes and much more.
- Lead. Lead oxide is proportionally added to the classical composition of the glass (charge). Lead glass is characterized by increased dielectric properties, which allows it to be used as the best insulating composition in television tubes, oscilloscopes, capacitors, etc. The presence of lead in the glass mass gives the material additional shine, sparkling, which is often used in the manufacture of art products, dishes, etc. v. Khrustal - one of the types of lead glass.
- Borosilicate. The addition of boron oxide to the composition of the material increases its resistance to thermal shock by up to 5 times, and its chemical properties are significantly improved. Borosilicate glass is used for the manufacture of pipes and laboratory-chemical glassware, household products. A large-scale example of use is the mirror created on the basis of borosilicate glass for the world's largest telescope.
- Other types of glass - aluminosilicate, borate, color, etc.
Types of window panes
Window glass is the most popular type of material. It transmits sunlight, provides thermal insulation in winter and summer, prevents the penetration of noise, aesthetically decorates the window opening and performs many more functions. Today, there is a wide selection of types of glass, each of which meets certain requirements:
- Energy saving. A type of glass tinted in bulk or coated with a special film that allows short-wave solar radiation to enter the room, and long-wave radiation from heating devices is not released from the room. The second name is selective glass. To date, several types of coatings have been developed. The most promising are K-glass (deposition of metal oxides on the surface) and i-glass (vacuum multilayer deposition of silver - dielectric).
- Sunscreen. Reduces the transmission of sunlight into the room. They are divided into two types - reflective and absorbing. The effect is achieved either by tinting the glass in bulk during cooking, or by applying a special film to the surface.
- Decorative. Window glass with additional aesthetic characteristics - patterned, colored, etc.
Safety glass
One of the negative qualities of glass is its fragility, there are technologies for hardening the material. The most common types:
- Reinforced. Sheet glass, during the formation of which a metal mesh is introduced into the mass. Scope - industrial premises, street lighting, cladding elevator shafts, etc.
- Laminated or triplex. Two or more glasses are fastened together with a special film or liquid. This type of material significantly reduces the noise level in the rooms. Also, when using additional color filters during lamination, it is able to perform sun protection functions. Triplex possesses increased mechanical stability; when breaking the canvas, fragments remain attached to the film, which makes it as safe as possible for use in facade, balcony, window, door glazing.
- Fire resistant. Most often, it is produced using the technology of lamination with special films, which at temperatures above 120 ° C change their physical properties and, expanding, become dull, giving the glass rigidity.
- Protective. It is a multilayer material consisting of several types of glass bonded with a polymer film. For example, silicate glass is bonded with polycarbonate and organic glass. Such a translucent block is resistant to mechanical, chemical, impact damage. Protective types of glass include bulletproof, shockproof, penetration resistant and other types. Technical requirements for the material and the classification of protective glasses are regulated by GOST R 51136.
- Hardened. It has high strength characteristics. The effect is ensured by the technology of glass production - in a special tunnel furnace, the sheets are exposed to high temperature for a short time and quickly cool. When broken, tempered glass breaks up into small fragments that do not carry threats to life and health. The disadvantage is the impossibility of machining the hardened web, with the slightest impact it is destroyed. Most of the tempered glass products are first formed, cut or processed in a different way, and only after that they are tempered.
Auto Glass
Car windows have enhanced strength characteristics that meet safety requirements. Today, two technologies are used in production - lamination (triplex) and hardening (stalinite):
- Tempered is obtained by heat treatment of ordinary silicate glass, heating it in an oven to a temperature of +600 ° C, followed by rapid cooling. It acquires mechanical and thermal strength, but under severe shocks it collapses, breaking up into small safe fragments, which do not have cutting and piercing edges. The Russian marking is the letter “Z”, the European marking is “T” or Tempered.
- Laminated - these are two thin sheet glass fastened with a polymer film under the influence of temperature and vacuum. The properties of glass are such that it remains intact under strong impacts, does not break up into fragments if it bursts. Parts remain stapled. Triplex has additional features - tinting with color filters during the lamination process, additional interior noise insulation, low thermal conductivity, etc.
Modern developments
The twentieth century can be called the time of widespread use of glass. After developing the technology of mechanical methods for producing material, it began to be used in various fields - as the thinnest fiber in the telecommunications industry, with no less success is used by large multi-ton blocks in construction technologies.
The properties of glass are diverse, they are still being studied at scientific institutes, and craftsmen are finding new ways of applying and inventing new types. In 1940, glassmakers introduced foamglass to the world. Its qualities are:
- Lightness - does not sink in water, has a cellular structure, the specific gravity slightly exceeds the weight of the cork.
- Moisture resistance, durability.
- Environmental friendliness (coke is added to the classic blend recipe).
- Fireproof (off) and drowns out fire.
- The material can be cut into pieces without compromising on quality.
The scope of application has become insulating materials for hazardous industries, cold stores, etc.
For solar panels, glass is used with a conductive coating of a thin layer of metal oxide. Coated panels operate at temperatures around 350 ° C. In addition, such glass is mounted in the cockpit of the aircraft in order to avoid frost and keep heat inside the cockpit.
An important achievement of our time is the possibility of producing glass ceramics. The material is made using conventional glass technology, but at the last stage of cooling, the process slows down and crystallization occurs in the bulk of the material. The catalysts are special additives that do not affect the external state of the glass, but form small crystals. The material without deformation can withstand high temperatures and is more resistant to all types of damage. It is used in rocket science, household appliances, laboratories, engine parts and in many other areas.
Glasses are different. I suspect that it is the process of production of the glass that we encounter every day that interests you — ordinary sheet or even “window”.
We’ll talk about him.
In the manufacture of glass, the following components are used.
Composition (raw materials)
- Quartz sand;
- Soda ash;
- Talamite;
- Limestone;
- Nepheline syenite;
- Sodium sulfate.
How to make glass (production process)
Typically, glass manufacturing companies use glass scrap (broken glass) plus the above components as ingredients.
1) The constituent elements of the future glass enter the furnace, where it all melts at a temperature of 1500 degrees, forming a homogeneous liquid mass.
2) Liquid glass enters the homogenizer (apparatus for creating stable mixtures), where it is mixed to a mass with a single temperature.
3) The hot mass is allowed to stand for several hours.
4) Liquid glass is fed into a container with liquid tin, where it floats on its surface, taking the form of a tape.
5) cooling stage
6) A glass tape is fed to a roller conveyor, where a laser scanner measures the thickness of the tape while the glass is still hot and soft.
7) The machine makes a shallow transverse furrow on the surface of an already cooled and hardened tape.
8) Next, sliced \u200b\u200bglass fragments are already moving along the conveyor, where a special roller cuts off the edges of each fragment to get an edge of perfect shape. The scraps fall into a special tank in order to be recycled as raw materials.
9) Almost finished sheets are transported to the product quality control department.
10) The control specialist conducts several tests with a separately selected instance from the general batch of products.
That's what glass does!
For fans of clarity, I am attaching a video clip from Discovery to the article, which demonstrates all stages of production at one of the modern enterprises.
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What is glass made of?
- It is better to buy in a store and not to steam.
- What is glass "cooked" from?
Paradoxically, GLASS is a liquid in a frozen state.
The main component of the glass, which enters into it in the largest amount (60-70% of the volume) and determines its typical properties, is SiO2 SILICA (sand, quartz, fine-grained sandstone).
Silica is introduced into the composition of glass, in the form, for example, quartz sand.
Only the MOST PURE varieties of quartz sand are used in glass melting, in which the total amount of contaminants (impurities of clay, lime, mica) does not exceed 2-3%.
Especially undesirable is the presence of iron, which, when found in sands, even in small amounts, stains the glass in an unpleasant greenish color.Glass can be welded from one sand without adding any other substances to it, but this requires a very high temperature (over 1700 degrees C).
Conventional modern stoves, laid out of refractory clay bricks, which use solid, liquid or gaseous fuels, are not suitable for this: you have to resort to electric furnaces, the operation of which is very expensive.
Therefore, to reduce the melting point of sand, various additives are used ... - It is made of sand at high temperature and a certain pressure
- For the manufacture of glass, craftsmen take: quartz sand (the main component); lime; soda; How to make glass Initially, quartz sand, soda and lime are heated in a special furnace to a temperature of 1700 degrees above zero. The grains of sand are joined together, after homogenized (converted into a homogeneous substance), the gas is removed. The mass is dipped in molten tin with a temperature above 1000 degrees, which floats on the surface due to lower density. The finer the mass entering the tin bath, the finer the exit glass. Glass making The final touch is gradual cooling.
Soda helps to reduce the melting point by 2 times. If you do not add it, the sand will be very difficult to melt, and accordingly connect individual grains of sand to each other. Lime is needed that the mass endured water.
- Quartz sand, lime and soda
- Well, actually, from quartz sand
- Glass is obtained by melting a mixture of sand and other mineral components, which depends on the brand of glass. For example, crystal glass, from which decorative dishes are made, contains a significant amount of lead. When melting pure quartz sand, quartz glass is obtained - it is very refractory and viscous in the melt, so it does not even become transparent due to the remaining air bubbles in it. It has a meager coefficient of thermal expansion - if it is heated to red and put into water, then it will not crack. It is used in the manufacture of laboratory glassware, glass heating elements for laboratories and industry, etc. To obtain optical quartz glass that transmits ultraviolet light, rock crystal is melted - this, like quartz sand, is pure SiO2, but coarse, which is rare in nature.
To the answer of Vasilchenko. Previously, for the manufacture of decorative dishes, uranium glass was made - an amazing yellowish-green color, products from it can be seen in Moscow at the Kuskovo Museum. With the discovery of radioactivity, the production of such glass ceased.
Screens from lead glass are used for protection from radioactive radiation - it contains even more lead than decorative crystal, and has a yellowish tint. Picture tubes for monitors are made of the same glass - to protect the PC user from the electron flow from the "electron gun" of the picture tube. - Ordinary glass contains about 70% silicon dioxide, which is found in quartz in the same form, and in its polycrystalline form, sand. Glass composition
Pure silica (SiO2) has a melting point of about 2000 degrees, and is mainly used to produce glass for special devices. Usually two more substances are added to the mixture to simplify the production process. Firstly, it is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), or potassium carbonate, which lowers the melting point of the mixture to 1000 degrees. However, these components contribute to the dissolution of glass in water, which is highly undesirable. Therefore, another lime component (calcium oxide, CaO) is added to the composition of the mixture to give the composition insolubility. Such glass contains approximately 70% silica and is called soda-lime glass. The share of such glass in the total production volume is approximately 90%.
As well as lime and sodium carbonate, other components are added to ordinary glass in order to change its physical properties. The addition of lead to glass increases the refractive index of light, significantly increases the gloss, and the addition of boron to the composition of the mixture changes the thermal and electrical properties of the glass. Thorium oxide gave the glass a high refractive index and low dispersion, which is necessary in the production of high-quality lenses, but because of its radioactivity it was replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern products. Iron additives in glass are used to absorb infrared radiation (heat).
Metals and their oxides are added to the glass to change its color. For example, manganese is added in small quantities to give the glass a green tint, or at higher concentrations the color of amethyst. Like manganese, selenium is used in small doses to discolor glass, or in high concentrations to give a reddish color. Low concentrations of cobalt give the glass a bluish tint. Copper oxide gives turquoise light. Nickel, depending on the concentration, can give the glass a blue, violet or black color. Depending on the composition of the glass, it is possible to influence its color by heating or cooling. # 9679; Chemical composition, % :
SiO2 - 72.2
Al2O3 - 1.7
CaO + MgO 12.0
Na2O + K2O 13.7
SO3 - 0.3
Fe2O3 - 0.1 - Cooked from quartz sand.
- From silicon using electrolysis.
We will finally answer a question that haunts many: “How is transparent glass made of opaque sand?”
To begin with, some time ago glass did not exist in principle, and people lived in caves. And with the advent of this fragile and transparent material, life has changed radically. Think for yourself how many glass things surround us today: shop windows, telescopes, computer screens, glasses, various containers, even learned to build houses out of glass.
Imagine how much glass a person makes and how much sand he uses. As for any production, first the raw material enters the plant - sand. And this sand, not some, but special - quartz. Compared with marine, quartz is much smaller and whiter.
The first stage of manufacturing is the oven. At a time, up to 170 tons of sand is placed in this furnace, and the temperature is brought to 1,500 degrees. The glass formula is not only sand (even though it is the majority), but also some substances that enhance its strength. Notice - strength, but not transparency. Here are the names of some components: sulfate, twine, soda, nitrate, dolomite. Soda, for example, is needed only to make the sand melt faster.
Already in the furnace, this whole mixture turns into glass. That's just it is still liquid. Further, until the glass has cooled and not frozen, it is poured into molds (for example, for making bottles). A special automated installation cuts the plastic glass mass pouring out of the furnace into equal pieces and sends these pieces to a molding machine. Since the main functions of production are occupied by machines, it quickly acquires the desired shape, not having time to harden before.
It turns out the secret in the oven itself? Is it possible that high temperature makes an opaque thing transparent? Not!
You will be surprised, but the sand was actually transparent even before arriving at the plant. To make sure of this, we need a microscope.
What does sand consist of? True, from the grains of sand. Here you need to look at them under a microscope. In fact, every grain of quartz sand is transparent! "Why, then, having typed sand in the palm of his hand, he does not shine through like water?"
And then the laws of physics come into force. The fact is that grains of sand are separate elements with several faces. It is these very faces that refract the ray of light that hits them. This creates the feeling of "opacity."
For even more understanding, let’s do an experiment. Take a transparent bottle and break it with a hammer. Shreds are additionally crushed in a mortar. Now pour them on the table, and what do we see? And we see an opaque pile of glass.
In the oven, everything happens with accuracy, but on the contrary, than in our experiment. The furnace combines the “chopped” grains of sand into one. Here the geometrical parameters of each individual grain of sand are no longer important, since all of them will melt and merge into a single whole. It will turn out one large grain of sand, which will easily transmit light, i.e. it turns out glass to order.
As soon as people learned how to make transparent glass and apply it in life, there was a need for opaque glass. Special powders were invented that not only can obscure the transparent material, but also give it the desired color. This is how it looks, in a simple way, to create glass on order.
In contact with
Glassware, windows in houses and much more - for us today these are familiar furnishings. However, many centuries ago glass goblets were fabulously expensive, and they could only be found on tables at the richest and most notable nobles.
What is glass made of, and how did people learn how to make it?
History of the invention of glass
Glass was known at least two thousand years ago. The ancient Roman historian Pliny described a case in which it was invented. According to him, once the sailors, carrying soda on their ship, landed to spend the night on the shore, covered with pure golden sand.
They made a fire to cook dinner and keep warm. By chance, one bag from their cargo burst, and soda spilled out into the fire. It rained at night, washed away the ash and firebrands, and the sailors saw a shining glass surface at the site of the fire.
Glass Making Components
Is it really that glass was invented, or, as another version says, it turned out in the course of experiments with firing clay pots - but people have mastered the secret of its preparation for a long time.
In order to make glass, three main components are required.
Quartz sand - This is pure river sand, consisting of silicon oxide. The proportion of sand in the mixture for glass melting is about 75%. It melts at a very high temperature: it needs to be heated to 1700 degrees Celsius. The transparency and quality of future glass products largely depends on the quality of sand. Venetian glassblowers, who made the most famous Murano glass in medieval Europe, specially brought sand from the province of Istria, and for Bohemian glass, craftsmen crushed pieces of quartz into fine sand.
Soda (or potash) necessary in order to melt sand at a lower temperature. Adding soda to the sand in the right proportions, the temperature of heating the glass mixture is reduced by almost half. 
During heating, soda decomposes to sodium or potassium oxide, which serves as a melting catalyst. In ancient times, it was obtained by leaching ash after burning algae or conifers. The proportion of soda in the mixture for glass is about 16-17%.
Lime, or Calcium Oxide, makes glass insoluble by most chemicals, strong and shiny. Bohemian glassblowers began to add it to glass for the first time in the seventeenth century, using limestone or chalk for this.
In addition, today sodium sulfate, thalamite and nepheline syenite are added to the glass mass. To obtain multi-colored glass, various metal oxides are used as additives: copper, iron, silver, etc.
Stages of sheet glass production
All the ingredients from which glass is made are loaded into an oven and heated until a homogeneous liquid mass is formed.
The molten mass is loaded into a homogenizer and mixed until completely homogeneous.
The glass mass is poured into a long container where the molten tin is located. On its surface, the glass is poured in an even layer of the same thickness, gradually cooling.
Frozen glass tape enters the conveyor, where the thickness is controlled and cut into standard pieces of glass. Cropped uneven edges and defective quality control are rejected.
Finished sheet glass undergoes the latest quality control and is sent to the finished product warehouse.
Similarly, glass is made for the manufacture of dishes, measuring instruments, Christmas decorations and other products. The composition of the glass may vary depending on the properties that it should have.
In addition, to increase strength, it can be subjected to a hardening procedure, acquiring the ability to withstand strong impacts on the surface. 
Duplex and triplex glasses glued with special compositions of two or three layers of thin glass are popular today. However, the basis of each of them is golden quartz sand, baking soda and ordinary lime.
