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Social stratification theory briefly. Social stratification and social mobility

Question number 1.Theories of social structure and social stratification.

The division of society on the layers existed even in the most primitive social systems, i.e. still at the level of communal system. The higher economic and cultural level of development reached society, the more clearly the various parties of social inequality between people were manifested. It can be assumed that the basis of social stratification was the division of social labor between people who constitutes any commonality, as well as the emergence of the institution of private property and related opportunities for the accumulation of wealth and the acquisition of power.

Given the significant number of structure-forming factors that scientists are allocated as the basis of stratification, it is impossible to disagree with the statement of the American psychologist A. Maslow (1908-1970), which basic needs are material needs: in food, clothing, dwelling. Therefore, there is every reason to consider the source of the origin of various socio-professional groups precisely material production that contributes to the satisfaction of the corresponding needs of community members. In the process of the historical development of society, the labor has become increasingly complicated (especially at the expense of machines and mechanisms), which required a certain qualifying preparation of people to its implementation, and therefore the development of the education system and training. Thus, public labor began to be divided into material and spiritual spheres of production. Such a division of labor entailed both a bundle in the field of education and culture, and therefore, in the method of satisfying spiritual needs.

Along with the processes of the separation of society for professional, territorial, national, religious communities were the processes of formation of property inequalities associated with the nature of property distribution, which allowed its owners to a greater extent than the poor, gain political power. Thus, the socio-economic and political elite was formed in society - the highest preferred layer of society, which significantly influenced all other types of inequality: educational, cultural, etc.

Since scientific and technical progress has made increasingly high demands on the educational and competence of a person, in society began to form a layer of population with a very high level of knowledge necessary for work in material and spiritual production. The professional work of representatives of this layer, called usually the middle class, as a rule, was highly paid, which allowed them to lead the appropriate lifestyle.

Finally, a significant proportion of the population, most often, having a low level of education or not having it at all, not possessing property, was the lowest layer of society.

Thus, the social structure of society was formed, in which people who have power and wealth occupied a higher social status than those that had only power or only wealth or had no other.

Under the socio-stratification structure of society, a multidimensional, hierarchically organized social space is usually understood, in which people differ (grouped) depending on the degree of possession of power, property, social status and the corresponding value orientation.

Stratification is due to methods with which the emerging inequality is transmitted from one generation to another, which contributes to the relative stability of both the social layers and the social structure of society as a whole. Under certain socio-economic conditions, it is possible to move from a layer in the layer, however, there are absolutely closed layers - castes, such as caste of brahmans or unacpended in Indian society.

The division of society entailed the formation of not only professional, but also economic, and political interests caused by the nature of social relations in this social system, which contributed to the emergence of classes. However, the concept of "classes" is interpreted in various concepts in different ways. According to M. Weber, classes are not communities, but are a possible basis for joint actions. We can only speak about them when many people are united by economic interests in the acquisition of goods or income and interact in the labor market or market market. Classes, like strata, have a certain social status in society, which is determined by the appropriate way of life.

The attitude of the subject to one or another strategy can be described as in objective indicators, for example, in the division of labor, levels of education and income, property ownership, and on subjective - in the level of prestige in the eyes of other people.

So, in the continuum of social space, people can be located on different floors of the building: Some - the highest sections of society, others - the middle, third - the lowest. Between them there is a so-called social distance. As a rule, in the developed capitalist countries, the "middle layer" is a state support and supports political and economic equilibrium of the social system. The composition of the middle class is determined by such indicators as income, education, public prestige, lifestyle.

Despite the age-old desire of people to equality, which stimulated the revolution and even wars (for example, the revolution of 1917 in Russia and the subsequent civil war), the desired equality never reach. The inequality existed, exists and will always exist. The question is to make social inequality less painful for members of society. Therefore, we are talking about social programs to support the population with a lower income level. Stabilization of the standard of living and the fight against poverty are a necessary factor in the success of economic, political and social transformations in society. The rapid development of science and technology and the associated redistribution of property actualized the problems of social stratification and social inequality, stimulated the emergence of various scientific theories explaining these processes.

Karl Marx provided the most profound effect on the development of the concept of stratification. Considering that the economy plays a major role in the development of social phenomena, he laid the concept of industrial relations as a basis for its concept of social stratification, believing all other characteristics of the classes derivatives. Marx noted that with any economic strict there is a dominant class, which owns the means of production, and the class of oppressed, working on the owners. PART OF SOCIETY - Lumpen - people who are completely rejected by society. From here, K. Marx and F. Engels had an idea to consider the inequality to consequences of unfair socio-economic relations between exploited and exploiters.

The polar point of view on the emergence of inequality expressed representatives of the functionalist stratification methodology to K. Davis and W. Moore, considering stratification as a consequence of the normal development of society (as opposed to K. Marx and other supporters of the conflictological approach). They believed that the stratification function in any society was to ensure the most capable and competent people with no one for social progress in accordance with their abilities. Thus, the "social prestige" was considered not as a derivative of the economic situation of a person in society, but as a characteristic having an independent status. This concept largely undermined the ideas of Marxists who identify stratification with the concept of social inequality, which caused a storm of indignation of supporters of the conflict school. However, among the conflicts themselves, there was also no unity. For example, R. Mikels, solidarizing the main provisions of K. Marx, questioned the idea of \u200b\u200beconomic determination of the causes of social conflicts. The concept of the "Iron Law of the Oligarchy" has shown that the power of a few is formed in any society whose number exceeds a certain amount.

The most significant scientific contribution to the theory of stratification was submitted by P. Sorokin. In the American sociology of the XX century, interest in the problems of stratification was especially large, as they were active socio-economic transformation of society affecting its social structure. It is these processes that P. Sorokin became interested. In 1927, his book "Social mobility" was published, which is still considered to be classically labor on stratification. This work has stimulated the subsequent numerous development of social stratification problems.

In his book, P. Sorokin indicates the presence of such a phenomenon as the social space, within which individuals are moved. To establish the social position of the individual in the social space, it is necessary to indicate, firstly, the attitude of the individual to specific groups; Secondly, the attitude of these groups to each other within the population and, thirdly, the attitude of this population to other populations in humanity. From here P. Sorokin determines the "social space" as the population of the Earth; "Social situation" - as the integrity of its relations with all groups of the population. The position of a person in the social universe is fixed by establishing these connections. The combination of such groups, as well as provisions within each group, is a coordinate system that allows you to determine the social position of any individual. Such a concept of social stratification allowed P. Sokin to allocate people in various social positions.

Given the multidimensionality of the social space, P. Sorokin proposes to allocate two parameters of social unified: vertical and horizontal. The movement of Ipdivides on the "social staircase" is considered to be social ascent, and moving down - social descent. The concept of social stratification distinguishes three types of population differentiation: economic, political, professional. It is to these three types of social stratification that the diversity of its manifestations may be reduced. In the social world, these types of differentiations are usually closely intertwined.

Any organization of people is always socially stratified. "Societies without a bundle," writes P. Sorokin, - with a real equality of their members - myth, never who has ever become a reality in the entire history of mankind. Forms and proportions of bundles may vary, but its essence is constant, if we talk about more or less permanent and organized groups. "

The problems of stratification play in sociology a priority role. First, the social structure of society is basic in the study of all processes and phenomena in public life; Secondly, the change in the social structure is the main indicator of changes in the social system of society.

In many cases, the concept of stratification reflects the presence of any one indicator (for example, the income - the economic status of a person), but it is these one-dimensional stratification that constitutes the characteristics of a significant number of relatively simple social structures of society. An example may be the structure of young people - the social layer of persons under 30 years.

The study of complex social systems has shown that they are based on multidimensional stratification, when social layers (or groups) have several indicators that combine them in any integrity. For example, it may be demographic, economic, educational and professional indicators.

In modern studies of social stratification problems, two scientific approaches are facing: empirical and theoretical. Representatives of the first approach are English anthropologists (in particular, E. lich), understanding the term "social structure" of the empirical reality itself, i.e. Specifically observed groups and hierarchies separating societies. Such stratification, in their opinion, exists all over the world. In contrast to this approach, structuralists (in particular, K. Levi-Stros) believe that the social structure of society is fictional designs. They are created by theorists in order to group various empirical data obtained as a result of sociological observations. There is no doubt that English anthropologists are aware that empirical data, i.e. Rectual observed processes and phenomena are based on some conceptual schemes created by scientists. It is the Bagodar with such schemes (models) sociologists allocate and classify the observed indicators. Scientists who share the concept of "mental structures" note that social structures studied by them and standing with them stratification reflects only the main features of real social relations.

Within the framework of this problem, the second question should be considered: how many social structures generated by stratification are stable? In order to answer this question, we turn to the work of the American sociologist P. Blau (r. 1918) "Different points of view on the social structure and their overall denominator." He writes that when studying the social structure, the emergenous properties of the components of its elements should be distinguished, i.e. Properties not characterized by individual individuals belonging to this structure. Therefore, in any structure, elements that make up the structure itself, and the complex of elements on which this structure is built are possible. Take a very visual example: the sum of all trees remains unchanged, regardless of whether each de Revo is worth it in a separate area or the trees grow together, but only in the second case they make up the forest.

Economic institutions considers such an emergenic properties of the national structure of society. Recognition of emergency properties in the formation and functioning of social structures makes it possible to assert that a number of social structures are very stable and, therefore, are stable and some stratification indicators.

At the base of the Marxist concept of stratification, lay a determining indicator, in which the ownership of property on the means of production and control over them, as well as the ownership of sales markets, was the main criterion of differentiation of the population. At the same time, K. Marx argued that antagonistic contradictions and class struggle are precisely the results of social stratification. The latter circumstance is due to the fact that individuals belonging to various classes, according to K. Marx, feel their class position and form their ideology, a certain type of consciousness and behavior. The entire Marxist concept is trying to associate this ideology with economic determinism and an inevitable class struggle that excludes any solidarity.

It can be agreed that the concept of stratification K. Marx is in many respects ideologized, but it is impossible to deny that in any society there is a division of labor, various forms of ownership and relations to them, and therefore, this stratification criterion is an emerant property of the formation of social layers, along with the authorities and politics. Thus, the power as it binds all stratification structures, subordinates them to certain institutional behavior.

In all the theories considered by us, the basis of stratification is social inequality, which, judging by the analysis of the work, is the inevitable negative moment of civilizational development. In order for the consequences of social inequality, they do not lead to wars and revolutions, power structures should conduct a reasonable social policy aimed at resolving social contradictions.

And social mobility both in domestic sociology and in Western rely on theoretical developments and concepts M. Weber, P. Sorokina, P. Burdje, M. Kona and other researchers.

Theory of Stratification M. Weber

The decisive condition (the first criterion of stratification) affecting the fate of a separate person is not so much the fact of class affiliation, how much position (status) of the individual in the market, which allows to improve or worsen his life chances.

The second stratification criterion is prestige, respect, honors who receive an individual or position. Status respect received by individuals unites them in groups. Status groups are distinguished by a certain way of life, life style, they have certain material and ideal privileges and try to usurp their insens on them.

Both class and status positions are resources in the struggle for the possession of power to which political parties are based on. This is the third stratification criterion.

Theory of Social Stratification and Social Mobility P. Sorokina (1889-1968)

The theory of stratification P. Sorokina was first set out in its work "Social mobility" (1927), which is considered to be classical labor in this area.

Social stratificationBy definition, Sorokina is the differentiation of a certain totality of people (population) into classes in a hierarchical rank. Its basis and essence - in the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibility and obligations, the presence or absence of social values, power and influence among the members of a particular community.

The entire variety of social stratification can be reduced to the three main forms - the economic, political and professional, which are closely intertwined. This means that those who belong to the highest layer in some kind of one respect, usually belong to the same layer and in another parameter; and vice versa. This happens in most cases, but not always. According to Sorokina, the interdependence of the three forms of social stratification is far from complete, because the various layers of each form do not quite coincide with each other, or rather, they coincide only partially. This phenomenon of Sorokin first called the status failure. It lies in the fact that a person can occupy a high position in one stratification and a low position in another. Such a mismatch is painfully experienced by people and can serve for some incentive to change its social status, lead to the social mobility of the individual.

Considering Professional stratification, Sorokin highlighted interprofessional and intraprofessional stratification.

In betweenprofessional stratification, two universal foundations are distinguished:

  • the importance of classes (profession) for the survival and functioning of the Group as a whole;
  • the level of intelligence required for the successful performance of professional duties.

Sorokin concludes that in any given society, a more professional work is to implement the functions of the organization and control and requires a higher level of intelligence for its implementation and, accordingly, implies the privilege of the Group and its higher rank that it takes place in the interprofessional hierarchy.

Intrapresional stratification Sorokin represented as follows:

  • entrepreneurs;
  • employees of the highest category (director, managers, etc.);
  • wired workers.

For the characteristics of a professional hierarchy, he introduced such indicators:

  • height;
  • floors (number of ranks in the hierarchy);
  • profile of professional stratification (the ratio of the number of people in every professional subgroup to all members of the professional group).

Social mobility Sorokin defined as any transition of an individual or social object (value, i.e. all that was created or modified by human activity) from one social position to another (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Types of social mobility

Under horizontal social mobility, or movement, implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level.

Under vertical social mobility Meaning the relationships that arise when moving the individual from one social formation to another. Depending on the direction of movement, vertical mobility ascending and descending, i.e. Social lift and social descent.

Ascending flows exist in two main forms:

  • penetration of an individual from the bottom layer into an existing higher layer;
  • creating a new group and penetration of the entire group into a higher layer at a level with existing groups of this formation.

Downlinks also have two forms:

  • a drop in an individual with a higher social position to the lower without destruction of the source group, to which the individual has previously belonged;
  • the degradation of the social group as a whole, decreases its rank against the background of other groups or the destruction of CE social unity.

The reasons for vertical group mobility, Sorokin called war, revolution, foreign conquests, which contribute to changing the criteria for stratification in society and change group status. An important reason may also be a change in the significance of a particular type of labor, industry industry.

The most important channels providing social circulation of individuals in society are such social institutions as an army, a school, political, economic and professional organizations.

Views of the Functionalists on Social Stratification

K. Davisand U. Mur. We saw the reason for the existence of a system of stratification in the uneven distribution of goods and public prestige. The main functional reason explaining the universal existence of stratification is related to the fact that any society inevitably faces the problem of placing individuals and stimulate them within their social structure. As a functioning organism, society should somehow distribute its members on various social positions and encourage them to fulfill the duties associated with these positions.

To fulfill such tasks, the Company must have some kind of benefits that can be used as incentives; Develop the methods of uneven distribution of these benefits (remuneration) depending on the positions occupied.

The remuneration and its distribution become part of the social device and in turn generate (cause) stratification.

As a remuneration, the Company offers:

  • objects that provide means of existence and comfort;
  • means to meet various inclinations and entertainment;
  • means to strengthen self-esteem and self-expression.

According to Davis and Moore, "Social inequality is an unknowingly developed means, with the help of which society provides the nomination and the most important positions of the most competent persons ..."

P. Burdy(R. 1930), a well-known French scientist, introduced an important contribution to the development of the theory of stratification and mobility. He concluded that the possibilities of social mobility are determined by various types of resources, or "capital", which have individuals, - economic capital in various forms, cultural capital, symbolic capital.

In modern societies, the highest layers are reproducing their positions:

  • ensuring the transfer of economic capital;
  • by hanging the younger generation with a special educational capital (training in special privileged schools and prestigious universities);
  • transmitting cultural capital, language and cultural competence, which is formed by creating a qualitative cultural environment for them (reading books, visiting museums and theaters, mastering the style of interpersonal relations, behavioral and linguistic manners, etc.).

American sociologist M. Kon. He put forward a hypothesis and proved on the basis of empirical research a close relationship between the stratification position and values \u200b\u200bof the individual.

For those who have a high social status, feels a competent member of the well-known society, the main value is the attainment attachment.

On the contrary, for lower socio-stratification positions, in which people see themselves less competent members of indifferent or hostile society, conformism is characteristic.

Concerning social mobility issues, Kon emphasized that people with an active life position have a greater chance to take a higher social position.

The stratification position of the individual, on the one hand, affects the professional installation to achieve, and on the other - depends on the carry.

Social inequality in society is most often understood as stratification - Distribution of social groups in a hierarchically ordered rank (ascending or descending by a sign).

The term "social stratification" introduced our former compatriot into scientific circulation, and then the famous American sociologist P. Sorokin, who borrowed this concept of geology. Stratification necessarily emphasizes the streamlining of social layers and has a Russian conceptual analogue - bundle on some criterion (wealth, power, prestige, etc.).

Theories of social inequality are divided into two principal directions: functionalistand conflictological (Marxist).

Functionalism , In the traditions of E. Durkheim, it takes social inequality from the division of labor: mechanical (natural, sexually transmitted) and organic (arising from training and professional specialization).

Since stratification is considered as a product of the division of labor, the functionalists believe that social inequality is determined primarily significance and prestige of functions performed for society.

If under this angle of view, analyze the stable societies of the modern type, this conclusion will be confirmed to a high degree. Indeed, the profession has become the defining criterion of social bundle and the professional status of a separate person or social group is closely related to such grounds for stratification, as income (property), power (position in the management system) and prestige (recognition of the social significance of this work).

In Marxism the focus is on the problems of class inequality and operation. Inequality is determined by a different attitude towards property. Social structure: 2 main class - proletaria and bourgeoisie + residual class - peasantry. One class is exploited by another - as a result, there is a social antholonism between two classes, which can be overcome through a socialist revolution, which will destroy private property.

Theory M. Weber . He supported the idea of \u200b\u200bK. Marx about the division of society into 2 classes. This division is based on an economic factor, it complements another number of factors: the prestige of the profession, qualifications, the level of income, the presence of a diploma, the status of a person, party.

Empirical theory of social stratification . As part of it, three approaches are distinguished:

    self-assessing or class identification method: sociologist submits to the respondent to determine its place on a specific scale.

    the method of assessing the situation: sociologist suggests the respondent to act as an expert and assess the class belonging of another person.

    "Objective" method: a sociologist operates with some objective criteria for social differentiation. Most often, the prestige of the profession, the level of power, the level of income.

A significant disadvantage of this theory is the absence of a developed theoretical base, the presence of subjectivism elements.

West German sociologist R.Darerendorf offered the basis of the social stratification to put the concept "authority", which, in his opinion, most accurately characterizes the attitude of the authorities and the struggle between the social groups for power. Based on this concept, D. divides all modern society on managing and managed . In turn, the managers share for 2 subgroups: managers of owners and managers of intricacies, i.e. Bureaucrats managers. Controlled are also divided into at least 2 subgroups: the highest - working aristocracy and lowest - low skilled workers. Between these two social groups there is an intermediate "new middle class" - the product of assimilation of the working aristocracy and employees with managers.

In live, dynamic society there is always an inner movement, since individual people and communion formed by them, as a rule, seek to take a higher social situation. This internal movement, changing individual or status (a priori, institutional) position, is called social mobility. Social mobility is a set of social movements of people, i.e. changes in an individual or a group of social status, the place occupied in the stratification structure of society.

Group of Goods, Resources Examples of resources Representatives
Economic Holding land, farms, factories, professional practices, business, liquid assets, people or labor K. Mark, Eric Wright
Political Power in the family, in the workplace, party, society M. Weber, R. Dawarendorf
Cultural Practice of consumption, "good manners", lifestyle P. Bourdieu, Paul Dimadzhio
Social Access to high-quality social relations, groups Lloyd Warner, James Coleman
Honorary Prestige, "Good Reputation", Glory, Respect, Ethnic and Religious Affiliation E. Shilz, Donald Trayman
Civilians Property rights, contract, freedom of unions, words Marshall, Rogers Brubacker, Kare
Human Skill, competence, experience, knowledge Swalastoga, Harry Becker

As part of structural functionalism, there are two main approaches to the expansion of stratification.

One of them ( functionalist) I received the greatest development in American sociology. Supporters Differentiate the population in terms of income, prestige, power and other characteristics, taking their quantitative indicators as self-sufficient and distracting from their sources. In this case, each individual, which occupies one or another status position, acts as an autonomous unit: it is his personal success, etc.

The whole tradition of American individualism works for such an approach. There are people who "made" themselves - winners (Winners) and there are losers (Losers). The reasons for the success of one and failure of others - only in their personal qualities.

Second tradition and second approach ( structuralist) considers social stratification through the prism of the relationship of elements of social

structures, i.e. social groups. Social stratification is perceived not as the result of differentiation of the abilities of individuals, but as a result of the fact that society is arranged in the form of a hierarchy: it always has a top and bottom; The higher, the less place. Therefore, even if everyone is brilliant and endowed with a heroic character, only a few will be able to get to the top. At the same time, the success of individuals is explained not only and not so much by their personal qualities, but from what level they started: to be inherited million dollars or / and expensive, first-class education is easier to become a multimillionaire or a major official than the son of the unemployed (example - Bill Gates ).

So, in this approach, power as a status indicator means not the power of someone over someone, i.e. not intercondibility, but power

a layer having power over a layer devoid of power.

1. Marx K. Class theory. Classes are distinguished by the overall position in the economic method of production, in a specific way of life, conflict relations with other classes, the presence of class consciousness, the presence of political ideology, level of education and culture. Social stratification depends on the level of possession of property.

2. M. Weber I believed that it is worth identifying stratification in three parameters: property, prestige, power, it is they who create the status of any person or a "social" group. For them, three groups can be distinguished: lower, middle and high. Weber did not attach special importance to property. A person or social group without having significant property may have great prestige and power. For example, a high-end manager at the enterprise.

Prestige also defines the position of a person in the social structure. For example, the prestige of the athlete, actor, the model can be exchanged for economic benefits. Political power is also relatively independent of property.
In real societies are possible various options. A person can be rich, but not to have the necessary status, education, political influence. This situation in Western sociology is denoted by the term "incompatibility status". People experiencing incompatibility status, feel disappointing, dissatisfaction, prone to extremism. If a person has a higher rank in one status and relatively low in the other, he tries to emphasize his high status, and when they are assessed by the surrounding people, they see first of all its low status.

3. T. Parsons Allocated three groups of differentiating signs. These include:

1) Characteristics with which people have from birth - gender, age, ethnicity, physical and intellectual features, family relationships of family, etc.;

2) signs associated with the execution of the role, i.e. with various types of professional work;

3) elements of "possessions", which includes property, privileges, material and spiritual values, etc.

4. In concepts Kingsley Davis and Wilburra (G.) Moore It was argued that the theory of social stratification unites the functional necessity and the universal presence of stratification in each society. Stratification for them is an uneven distribution of material goods and a public prestige, which is determined by the functional significance of the position.

5. P. Sorokin. Allocated three types of stratification: economic, political, professional.

Economic exists in the presence of property and poor in society

The political exists in the presence of managed and managers in society and depends on the two criteria: the size of the political organization (the greater the size, the higher the stratification), the heterogeneity of the organization (with greater heterogeneity above and stratification)

Professional (intraprofessional and interprofessional)

6. American sociologist Elton Johnson In their stratification studies, the social status of individuals in three main features: the genus of classes, education and a racial-ethnic group of a person.

Higher education, average and lower. The formation is high in the status of the formation of people who have completed at one time not just universities, but prestigious universities.

Raslo-ethnic group. Taking into account the specifics of the United States, he allocated in one group of Irish in origin, in the second - Italians (among whites) and in the third - representatives of yellow and black races.

The occupation: Higher Status, Middle Status and Low Status.

With the help of a combination of individual ranks in three groups, you can determine the status of compatibility of specific people. White American, with higher education, working as a garrist or taxi driver, is one status. The mayor of the city, without higher education, black, is another status. The definition of the social status of a separate personality or social group in the stratification system makes it possible to largely predict the behavior of a person, its reaction to specific situations, attitude to social conflicts and much more.

Stratification systems

To fly to the government - gravitzappa must have! The government on another planet lives ... native.

k / F "KIN-DZA-DZA"

№ Name of the stratification system The basis of differentiation Method of maintenance Time and place of existence
Physical and genetic Socio-demographic signs (gender, age) and physical data Physical coercion, custom Primitive community to this day
RabVallastic Rights of citizenship and property Military legal coercion Antique slavery, Halophry in Russia (in the times of "Russian truth"), plantation slavery (in southern North America), German and Soviet Camps of the XX century.
Castow Religious and ethnic division of labor Religious ritual, ethnic closure India until 1950, Central Asian states, the fascist regime period, etc. China, Japan, Egypt, Peru, Iran
Estate Responsibilities to the state Norms rights Feudal society
Staucratic (powerful) Ranks in the power hierarchy Military political domination (table of ranks, military statutes) Asian despotism societies (China, India), Chile (with Pinochet), Soviet system
Socio-Professional Rod classes and qualifications Educational certificates Any Society
Class Dimensions of income and property Norms of a market economy Bourgeois society
Cultural and symbolic Sacred knowledge (or socially significant information Religious, ideological, scientific manipulation Any Society
9 Cultural and regulatory Norms of behavior, life styles Morale standards, imitation Any Society

Marginality

- We are a month for the Galaxy "Mom" Popot and the planet in our pocket. And another month - and you buy air. Who has no air, everyone will hide here. Our air.
- They will craw on the karachets, and we don't care about them!
- What for?
- What do you mean why? Pleasure to receive.
- And what is the pleasure?
- Still young…

K / F "KIN-DZA-DZA"

The concept of marginalness played an important role in sociological thought, but it is still a lot of difficulties in determining the content of the concept of marginalness.

The term "marginal" was used for a long time to designate records, marked in the fields; In another sense, he means "economically close to the limit, almost loss."

As sociological it has existed since 1928. American sociologist, one of the founders of the Chicago school Robert Ezra Park (1864-1944) for the first time used him in his essay "Human Migration and Marginal Man" dedicated to the study of processes in the environment immigrants. True, the history of the term may be considered the term "intermediate element" ("Interstital Element"), consumed by another researcher of this school in 1927 when studying immigrant groups in a city social organization.

Robert Park is known primarily by the development of the urban environment (in particular, immigrant communities in American cities) and racial relations between intercultural interaction. Their result was the formation of a submission of the type of "border" person, characteristic of intensive migration processes in American society.

At the park the concept of marginalness (From the Latin Margo - the region, the boundary, the limit) meant the position of individuals on the border of two different, conflicting cultures among themselves, and served to study the consequences of the non-adaptation of migrants, the characteristics of the position of mulatto and other "cultural hybrids".

In his theory, the marginal man appears as an immigrant; Half-form living at the same time "in two worlds"; Christian rejected in Asia or Africa. The main thing is that determines the nature of the marginal man - a sense of moral dichotomy, split and conflict, when old habits are discarded, and the new ones are not yet formed. This condition is associated with a period of moving, transition defined as a crisis. "No doubt, the park notes - the periods of the transition and the crisis in the life of most of us are comparable to those who survive the immigrant when he leaves his homeland to look for fortune in a foreign country. But in the case of a marginal man, the crisis period is relatively continuous. As a result He tends to turn into a personality type. "And then he notes that in the nature of the marginal man "Moral confusion", which causes cultural contacts, manifests itself in more explicit forms; Studying these phenomena where changes and fusion of cultures occur, we explain the scientist, we can better study the processes of civilization and progress.

In the description of the "marginal man", the park often resorts to psychological accents. American psychologist T. Shibutani paid attention to complex the features of a marginal mandescribed by the park. It includes the following signs:

Ø serious doubts about their personal value,

Ø Uncertainty of relationships with friends and constant fear to be rejected,

Ø tendency to avoid uncertain situations in order not to risk humiliation,

Ø painful shyness in the presence of other people,

Ø loneliness and excessive dreaminess,

Ø excessive concern about the future and fear of any risky enterprise,

Ø Inability to enjoy and confidence that those surrounding unfairly with him are addressed.

At the same time, the park binds the concept of a marginal man rather not with a personal type, but with a social process. He considers a marginal man as a "by-product" process of accurativity in situations where people of various cultures and various races converge in order to continue the common life, and prefers to explore the process rather not from the point of view of personality, and societies in which it is part of.

The park comes to the conclusion that a marginal personalty embodies a new type of cultural relationship, developing at the new level of civilization as a result of global ethnosocial processes. "A marginal person is a type of personality, which appears at the time and of the place where new communities, peoples, cultures begin to appear from the conflict of races and cultures. Fate condemns these people to existence in two worlds at the same time; forces them to accept them with respect to both worlds. The role of a cosmopolitan and a stranger. Such a person inevitably becomes (in comparison with its directly surrounding cultural medium), an individual with a wider horizon, more sophisticated intelligence, more independent and rational views. A marginal person is always a more civilized being. "

Thus, initially considering the problems of marginalness is associated with the "cultural approach" of Robert Park, who gave a lot of fruitful ideas to modern researchers.

The ideas of the park were picked up, developed and reworked by another American sociologist - Everett Stubwist In a monographic study "Marginal man" (1937). With his name, the final consolidation and legitimation of the concept of marginalness in sociology is most often associated.

Stubwist describes the marginal position of the social entity participating in the cultural conflict and the "between two lights". Such an individual is located on the edge of each crop, but does not belong to any of them.

As samples of such behavior, Stubwist explores racial hybrids (Anglo-Indians, Cape Color South Africa, Mulatts in the United States, Color Jamaica, Metisov Brazil, etc.), cultural hybrids (Europeanized Africans, denationalized Europeans, immigrants, etc.) .

The object of attention of Stonuncist is the typical features of a similar personality and the problems associated with its inseparableness and adaptability, as well as the sociological significance of the marginal person. He considers a marginal man as a key personality (Key-Personality) in the contacts of cultures. Stubwist defines a marginal person in terms of personality or group, which moves from one culture to another, or in some cases (for example, as a result of marriages or through education) combined with two cultures. It is in psychological balancing between the two social worlds, one of which, as a rule, dominates the other. Just like the park, focusing on the description of the inner world of the marginal man, Stubwist applies the following psychological characteristics reflecting the degree of acute cultural conflict:

Ø Disorganization, stunning, inability to determine the source of the conflict;

Ø The feeling of "impregnable wall", unsuitable, unsuccessfulness;

Ø anxiety, anxiety, internal voltage;

Ø isolation, alienation, not involved, constraint;

Ø Disappointment, despair;

Ø The destruction of the "life organization", mental disorganization, the meaninglessness of existence;

Ø Egocentricity, ambition and aggressiveness.

Researchers note the proximity of its characteristics of the "marginal man" and the characteristic features of the society in a state of annomia, as a consequence of a social relationship, are in a state of annomia. However, Stunkwist was interested in the causes of cultural and deterministic marginalness.

It should be noted that if the park considered the marginal person as a person at the turn of two cultures and two societies, which will never be adopted in a new society, remaining a person with a split consciousness and a frustrated psyche, then Stubwist believed that the adaptation process could lead to the formation Personality with new properties. This is an important point in the positive perspective review of the problems of marginalness. The process of "transformation of social, mental and emotional aspects of the individual", according to a scientist, can take about 20 years. Stonuncist allocated three phases of the evolution of the "marginal man":

1. The individual does not realize that his own life is covered by the cultural conflict, he only "absorbs" the dominant culture;

2. The conflict is experiencing consciously - precisely at this stage the individual becomes "marginal";

3. Successful and unsuccessful search for adaptation to a conflict situation.

Thus, the concept of marginalness is initially represented as a concept of marginal man. R. Park and E. Stubnistist, describing the inner world of marginal, became the founders of the tradition of psychological nominalism in the understanding of marginalness in American sociology. It should be emphasized once again that the initially central problem of marginalness was a cultural conflict, and, therefore, in this case, marginality was described, denoted as cultural.

In the future, the concept of marginalness was picked up by "countless sociologists. In the 40s - 60s, it was particularly actively developed in American sociology. The problem of marginalness is no longer limited to cultural and racial hybrids, like Stubwist. The theory of Stubwist was criticized. For example, D. Golovansky considered the concept of "marginal man" "sociological fiction." A. Green argued that the marginal man is a comprehensive term (Omnibus Term), which, including everything, does not exclude anything, and therefore should be used carefully and only after its parameters Defined.

In turn, R. Merton determined marginality as a specific case of the theory of the reference group. He notes that marginality arises when an individual through preliminary socialization is preparing for membership in a positive reference group, which is not inclined to accept it. Such a condition implies the plurality of loyalty and double identification, incomplete (incomplete) socialization and lack of social affiliation.

The German sociological literature is characterized by an approach to marginalness in the field of social structure as a public position characterized by a high social distance in relation to the dominant culture of the "Basic Society" (Kerngesellschaft). This position is usually at the lowest step of the hierarchical structure (in this sense "on the edge") of society, and the social category of people who are in the marginal position, here is indicated as a reproach group (as well as "marginal", "Problem Group", "Socially despised layers ", declared; in everyday speech -" precipitation "," bottom "," garbage ", lepers", "asocial"). In the German research literature, various heterogeneous groups are ranked in the German research literature for social collapsible groups, for example, Roma, Foreign workers, homosexuals, prostitutes, alcoholics, drug addicts, tramps, youth subcultures, beggars, criminals and liberated criminals.

Three measurements of the marginalization process are distinguished:

Economic - marginalization as "relative deprivation", suspension from activities and consumption;

Political - defeat in civil / political rights (De Facto or De Jure), deprivation of election rights; removal from participation in ordinary political activities and from access to formal political influence;

Social - marginalization as a loss of public prestige: declaration, stigmatization ("verachtung"), etc. marginal groups.

Currently, the concept of marginalness is under further development. First of all, three directions were separated in it, three types: cultural, structural and marginalness of the social role.

Cultural marginalness - in its classical definition refers to the processes of cross-cultural contacts and assimilation. At the heart of this type of marginalness - the relationship of the values \u200b\u200bof the two crops in which the individual participates, the result of which the ambiguity becomes, the uncertainty of status and role. Classical descriptions of cultural marginalness were given Stubwist and Park (as mentioned earlier).

Marginality of the social role - the marginality of this type arises in the following cases: in case of failure, when an attempt to assign to a positive reference group; Finding in the role that lies between two nearby roles; Membership in groups defined as marginal (some professional groups); The same type also includes those social groups that are completely outside the main current of the social organization (for example, Gypsies, homeless people, etc.)

Structural marginalness - refers to the political, social and economic powerlessness of some devoid of electoral rights and / or the unprofitable position of segments within society.

Exploring the degree of severity of marginalness and putting substantially the problem of measuring this phenomenon in various social situations, Mancini offers a system of meters. The extreme degree of marginalness is spiritual disorganization and / or suicide. The first type of marginalness is rather connected with the position in the structure when the individual becomes a marginal "by definition". The second appearance, notes Mancini, is based on moving between two groups, when the person is trying to move from one social position to another. In this case, marginality takes place when in the process of motion from the "feed" group (Feeder-Group) to the "host" (Recipient Group) - usually a positive reference group, the personality still has roots in the same, but not yet fully adopted in a new one. Obviously, the essential and procedural marginalness summarizes signs, in the first case, cultural and structural, and in the second - socio-role marginalness.

In general, two main approaches can be distinguished in the study of marginalness:

Ø Studying marginalness as a process of moving a group or an individual from one state to another;

Ø Studying marginalness as a state of social groups in a special marginal (outskirt, intermediate, isolated) position in the social structure as a consequence of this process.

Society Reaction for Marginals: Therapy and Exception

Therapy is included when the marginal definition of reality has a psychologically subversive nature for other members of society;

The exclusion of strangers - carriers of other definitions is carried out in two directions.

1) restriction of contacts with "outsiders";

2) Negative legitimation. Negative legitimation means bringing the status and the possibility of the influence of marginals for community.

Resources overcoming marginalness

1) Social resources. An important resource for overcoming marginalness is the presence of relatives and friends in a new place, which determined in most cases a selection of this or that city. The next "instance" are friends.

2) Economic resources. These include property brought with them, money and the presence of a "convertible" specialty. It is in these resources that migrants usually experience the most acute drawback. People come almost with empty hands, because funds from the sale of property for the accuctacles can barely cover the cost of the road. Like the unemployed, forced migrants are usually employed with a strong decrease in social status.

3) legal resources - Russian citizenship, local registration and status of a forced migrant. They are equally important both in solving the practical problems of employment and solving a housing problem and in acquiring the status of "their". So, many migrants the first stage of the path traveled precisely the recognition of the legitimacy of their stay in this area as of equal rights.

4) Activities are represented by a conscious choice of the current situation, readiness to take for any work, in general to difficulties and long-term efforts.

5) Symbolic compensation for lost opportunities. "Transformation" of a difficult situation to favorable, finding advantages in any event is also a resource that helps to avoid strong stress and soberly assess their capabilities. The most important element of such a sober assessment becomes a decrease in the planks of the needs of people, the adoption of the fact that they are only available to the lower life standard than the one that was previously available.

6) Emotional resources.

Types of marginalov:

1) Postpecicalists. Thus, with all the heterogeneity and complexity of the "postpeclation" group, you can determine the most common types:

o Regionally settlers - workers of small and medium cities with a coagulated monoproteship, employment and depressive regions.

o Professional and sectoral - employees of industries (mechanical engineering, light, food, etc.) and professions, specialties (engineering and technical workers), unclaimed by modern economic conditions.

o Budget - employees of reformable budget branches of science, education, army.

2) "New agents" - or small business entrepreneurs - a more homogeneous group, which has all the signs of a new social layer in the structure of Russian society.

3) "Forced Migrants" - the peculiarities of the situation of this group are related to the fact that it objectively falls into the situation of multiple marginalness, due to the need to adapt to a new environment after a forced change of residence.

  • Alternative theories of product properties and its cost. The concepts of goods, consumer value, utility and prices. Three pricing law and three pricing effect

    • Where he denotes the location of the layers of the Earth. But people initially likened the social distances and partitions between them between the lands, the floors of the objects, plant tiers, etc.

    Stratification - This is the division of society to special layers (strata) by combining various social positions with about the same social status, reflecting the idea of \u200b\u200bthe social inequality that has developed in it (social hierarchy), along its axis on one or more stratification criteria (social indicators status). The division of society to strata is carried out on the basis of the inequality of social distances between them - the main property of stratification. Social strata are built up vertically and in a strict sequence of indicators of well-being, power, education, leisure, consumption. In social stratification, a certain social distance is established between people (social positions) and a hierarchy of social layers is built. Thus, unequal access of members of society to one or another socially significant scarce resources is fixed by establishing social filters on the borders that share social strata. For example, the allocation of social layers can be carried out on the levels of income, education, power, consumption, the nature of labor, the conduct of free time. Social layers allocated in society are estimated in it by the criterion of social prestige, expressing the social attractiveness of certain positions. But in any case, social stratification is the result of more or less conscious activities (policies) of the ruling elites, extremely interested in imposing a society and legitimize its own social ideas about unequal access to members of society to social benefits and resources. The simplest stratification model is dichotomous - division of society on elite and mass. In some of the earliest, archaic social systems, the structuring of society to clans is carried out simultaneously with the conduct of social inequality between them and inside them. So those who are dedicated to certain social practices (priests, elders, leaders) and the uninitiated - profans (all other members of society, ordinary members of the community, tribesmen) appear. Inside them, society can continue if necessary. As complicities (structuring) of society occurs a parallel process - embedding social positions into a certain social hierarchy. So the castes, estates, classes, etc., modern ideas about the stratification model that established in the society is quite complex - multi-layered (polychotomic), multidimensional (carried out in several axes) and variations (allowing the existence of a plurality of stratification models). Cents, quotas, certification, status definition, ranks, benefits, privileges, etc. Preferences.
    Social mobility is the most important dynamic characteristic of society - a change in the individual or a group of space occupied in the social structure (social position), moving from one social layer (class, group) to another (vertical mobility) or within the same social layer (horizontal mobility). Along with social filters that establish barriers and braking social movements, there are also "social elevators" in society, significantly accelerating this process (in crisis society - revolution, war, conquest, etc.; In normal society - family, marriage, education , Property, etc.). The degree of freedom of social movements from one social layer in another largely determines how society is closed or open.

    • Ilyin V.I. The theory of social inequality (structuralist-constructivist paradigm). M., 2000.
    • Sushkova-Irina Ya. I. Dynamics of social stratification and its representation in the paintings of the world // Electronic magazine "Knowledge. Understanding. Ability ". - 2010. - № 4 - Culturalology.

    Notes


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