Writing and reading disorders (briefly). Disorders of the writing process (agraphia) Partial complete violation of the specific processes of writing

In the primary grades of a general education school, there are children whose process of mastering writing and reading is impaired. A partial disorder in the processes of reading and writing is denoted by the terms dyslexia and dysgraphia. Their main symptom is the presence of persistent specific errors, the occurrence of which among students of a general education school is not associated with a decrease in intellectual development, or with severe hearing and vision impairments, or with the irregularity of schooling. Dyslexia and dysgraphia usually occur together. A complete inability to master writing and reading is called agraphia and alexia, respectively. The causes of dysgraphia and dyslexia are associated with a violation of the interaction of various analyzer systems of the cerebral cortex.

Dysgraphia manifests itself in persistent and repetitive writing errors. These errors are usually grouped according to the following principles: shifts and replacements of letters; distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word; violations of the fusion of writing individual words in a sentence - breaking a word into parts, fused spelling of words in a sentence; agrammatism; mixing letters by optical similarity.

Violation of writing in the form of dysgraphia is closely related to the insufficient readiness of mental processes that are formed during the development of oral speech. It is during the period of mastering oral speech that generalized concepts of the sound and morphological composition of the word are created on a purely practical level, which subsequently, when the child transitions to literacy and spelling, contributes to their conscious assimilation. In order to master literacy and the phonetic and morphological principles inherent in Russian writing, a child must be able to separate the sound side of a word from the semantic one, analyze the sound composition of a word that is clearly pronounced in all its parts. For fluent oral speech, it is often sufficient to clearly pronounce only those sounds that are necessary for understanding the word (semantic sounds). Those sounds that are less related to the listener's understanding of the word are pronounced less carefully and definitely in natural speech. Too clear articulation of all the sound elements of the word contradicts the orthoepic requirements of the language. At the same time, in the process of normal speech ontogenesis, a child acquires a fairly accurate idea of ​​the sound composition of a word, including its unclearly pronounced elements. This turns out to be possible due to linguistic generalizations that develop with the constant comparison of words with each other. In the process of correlating sound elements that reflect the difference in the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word, the child's cognitive processes are being prepared for understanding the relationship between orthoepy and spelling. Successful mastery of writing is preceded not only by the accumulation of a sufficient vocabulary of words, but also by the presence in speech experience of a conscious analysis of words according to adequate signs of correlating orthoepy and spelling. So, the child must be aware that the words fly in, fly in have the same root. The normal formation of oral speech is accompanied by the accumulated experience of cognitive work both in the field of elementary sound generalizations and in the field of morphological analysis.

Children with speech underdevelopment do not master this level of linguistic generalization and, accordingly, are not ready to master such a complex analytical and synthetic activity as writing.

Currently, it is customary to distinguish several types of dysgraphia.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia. With this form of dysgraphia, children experience various distortions of sound pronunciation (phonetic disorders) and insufficiency of phonemic perception of speech sounds that differ in subtle acoustic-articulatory features and (phonetic-phonemic disorders). Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself mainly in the substitutions of letters that correspond to the substitutions of sounds in the child's oral speech. Sometimes substitutions of letters remain in the child's letter even after they are eliminated in oral speech. According to R. E. Levina (1959), this is because children with speech pathology do not develop generalized concepts about the sound and morphological composition of the word during the period of mastering oral speech. Normally, it is the creation of these generalizations that allows primary school students to consciously move on to acquiring literacy and spelling.

Acoustic dysgraphia. In children with this form of dysgraphia, the processes of phonemic perception are not well formed. This is manifested in the substitutions and mixtures of letters, which denote sounds that differ in subtle acoustic-articulatory features. For example, substitutions and displacements of letters denoting whistling and hissing sounds; voiced and deaf; soft and hard; sounds r and l; substitutions of letters denoting vowel sounds. In addition, children may have unformed sound analysis and synthesis, which manifests itself in writing in the form of the following specific errors: omissions, insertions, permutations, repetitions of letters or syllables. The omissions of letters indicate that the child does not isolate all of its sound components (“snks” - sledges) in the composition of the word. The permutations and repetitions of letters and syllables are an expression of the difficulties in analyzing the sequences of sounds in a word (“korvom” - a carpet, “sugar” - sugar). Insertions of vowels are more often observed with consonant clusters, which is explained by the overtone that appears when the word is spoken slowly during writing and resembles a reduced vowel (“girl”, “Alexandar”).

Dysgraphia associated with impaired language analysis and synthesis. This form of dysgraphia is due to the fact that students do not isolate stable speech units and their elements in the speech flow. This leads to the continuous spelling of adjacent words, prepositions and conjunctions with the subsequent word ("on a tree"); to the separate writing of parts of the word, more often the prefix and the root (“and dut”).

Agrammatical dysgraphia. This form of dysgraphia is more clearly traced than others due to the lack of development of the grammatical side of oral speech in children. In writing, grammatical connections between words are violated, as well as semantic connections between sentences.

Optical dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of spatial representations, analysis and synthesis of visual perception.

This is manifested in the replacements and distortions of letters similar in outline (d - b, t - w, and - w, p - t, x - w, l - m), incorrect arrangement of letter elements, etc. This type of dysgraphia includes the so-called "mirror writing".

A child with dysgraphia usually has difficulty developing graphic skills, resulting in uneven handwriting. The child's difficulty in choosing the right letter gives a characteristic sloppy look to the letter. It is full of corrections and corrections.

Dyslexia as a partial disorder of the process of mastering reading is manifested in numerous repeated mistakes in the form of substitutions, permutations, omissions of letters, etc., which is due to the unformed mental functions that ensure the process of mastering reading. Mistakes in dyslexia are persistent.

There are the following forms of dyslexia

phonemic dyslexia. It is observed in children with unformed functions of phonemic perception, analysis and synthesis. Children in the process of reading confuse letters denoting sounds that are similar in acoustic and articulatory parameters. With the underdevelopment of the functions of phonemic analysis and synthesis, letter-by-letter reading, distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word (inserts, omissions, permutations) are observed.

Semantic dyslexia is due to the unformed processes of evucosyllabic synthesis and the lack of differentiated ideas about syntactic relationships within a sentence. Such children master the technique of reading, but they read mechanically, without understanding the meaning of what they read.

Agrammatical dyslexia is observed in children with unformed grammatical side of oral speech. When reading sentences, grammatical errors are observed.

Mnestic dyslexia is associated with a violation of the establishment of associative links between the visual image of a letter and the auditory image of a sound, that is, children cannot remember letters and compare them with the corresponding sounds.

Optical dyslexia is caused by the same mechanisms as optical dysgraphia. When reading, letters similar in outline are mixed and interchanged by children. Sometimes "mirror reading" can be observed.

Children with dysgraphia and dyslexia need speech therapy classes that use special methods to develop writing and reading skills.

Clinical, psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children with speech disorders

Children with speech disorders usually have functional or organic abnormalities in the state of the central nervous system.

The presence of organic brain damage causes the fact that these children do not tolerate heat, stuffiness, riding in vehicles, long swings, they often complain of headaches, nausea and dizziness. Many of them have various motor disorders: imbalance, coordination of movements, undifferentiated movements of the fingers and articulatory movements (i.e., unformed general and oral praxis).

Such children are quickly exhausted and fed up with any kind of activity (i.e., they get tired quickly). They are characterized by irritability, increased excitability. Motor disinhibition, cannot sit still, fiddle with something in their hands, dangle their legs, etc. They are emotionally unstable, the mood changes quickly. Often there are mood disorders with the manifestation of aggression, obsession, anxiety. Much less often they have lethargy and lethargy. These children tire quite quickly, and this fatigue accumulates during the day towards the evening, as well as towards the end of the week. Fatigue affects the general behavior of the child, his well-being. This can manifest itself in increased headaches, sleep disturbance, lethargy, or, conversely, increased motor activity. It is difficult for such children to maintain perseverance, efficiency and voluntary attention throughout the lesson. Their motor disinhibition can be expressed in the fact that they show motor restlessness while sitting in class, get up, walk around the classroom, run out into the corridor during the lesson. During the break, children are overly excitable, do not respond to comments, and after the break they can hardly concentrate on the lesson.

As a rule, such children have instability of attention and memory, especially speech, a low level of understanding of verbal instructions, insufficiency of the regulatory function of speech, a low level of control over their own activities, impaired cognitive activity, and low mental performance.

The mental state of these children is unstable, and therefore their performance changes dramatically. During the period of psychosomatic well-being, such children can achieve quite high results in their studies.

Children with functional deviations in the state of the central nervous system are emotionally reactive, easily give neurotic reactions and even disorders in response to a remark, a bad mark, a disrespectful attitude from the teacher and children. Their behavior may be characterized by negativism, increased excitability, aggression, or, on the contrary, increased shyness, indecision, fearfulness. All this as a whole testifies to the special state of the central nervous system of children suffering from speech disorders.

The system of special institutions for children with speech disorders

In addition to special kindergartens for children with speech disorders, there are special (speech therapy) groups in general kindergartens, as well as speech therapy centers in general kindergartens. At general education schools, there are points of correctional and pedagogical assistance, where a defectologist provides assistance to children with speech disorders and learning difficulties. In addition, there are special schools for children with severe speech disorders.

Regardless of the type of institution, speech therapy assistance that persons with speech disorders receive is carried out only under the conditions of a comprehensive medical, psychological and pedagogical impact. It involves the inclusion in the process of rehabilitation work of a number of specialists (speech therapist, doctor, psychologist) according to the needs of a child or adult with speech pathology.

Since speech is a complex mental function, a deviation in its development and its violation, as a rule, are a sign of serious changes in the state of the central nervous system. This means that not only speech suffers, but all higher mental functions in general. Children with speech pathology tend to have greater or lesser learning difficulties. At the same time, the vast majority of children with speech disorders study in general education schools. Since the pronounced signs of speech disorders at school age may already be absent, teachers often associate difficulties in teaching such children with deficiencies in education, low parental control, and social neglect. However, these children require special attention from teachers.

First of all, children who have learning difficulties and, especially in mastering the process of writing and reading, should be referred to a defectologist. In addition, these children need a more favorable (facilitated) learning regimen. Such a regime is characterized not by a decrease in the level of requirements for the assimilation of program material, but by the organization of a training regime. First of all, they need special psychological support from the teacher. This is expressed in encouragement, a soft tone of remarks, encouragement, etc. The tasks that are set for the class as a whole in the educational process should be detailed for such children, instructions should be more detailed, that is, be accessible for understanding and execution.

In cases where a child has persistent writing and reading errors, he should not be forced to repeat the same tasks over and over again. In this case, the child needs specialized speech therapy assistance using corrective methods of teaching writing and reading.

When communicating with students with learning difficulties, the teacher should pay great attention to the quality of his speech, since the quality of perception of educational material by children will depend on this. The speech of the teacher should be slow, measured, consist of short and clear sentences, emotionally expressive. And most importantly, the general background of the teacher's behavior and appeal to children (facial expressions, gestures, intonation) should be benevolent, arouse in the child a desire to cooperate.

If there are stuttering children in the class, it is recommended not to replace the oral answers of these children with written ones; oral interviews should be conducted on the spot, without calling to the board, and also without starting the survey with stuttering children. If the child has a pronounced fear of speech, it is recommended to interview the stutterer after the lesson. At the same time, the teacher's soft, benevolent attitude towards the child will help improve the quality of his speech.

Dysgraphia in children is a specific difficulty in mastering the skills of writing, which most often accompanies the underdevelopment of oral speech in dyslalia, dysarthria, alalia, hearing loss, but can occur and manifest itself.

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Dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia in children is a specific difficulty in mastering the skills of writing, which most often accompanies the underdevelopment of oral speech in dyslalia, dysarthria, alalia, hearing loss, but can occur and manifest itself.

Agraphia and dysgraphia are various disorders of written speech that have arisen on the basis of incorrect or incomplete development of oral speech, violations of it, or as a result of lesions of specific mechanisms of writing, or, finally, due to other psychophysical disorders of the writer (poor attention, painful haste, poor memory for visual and sound images ....).

Dysgraphia is a partial violation of the writing process, in which persistent and recurring errors are observed: distortions and replacements of letters, distortions of the sound-syllabic structure of a word, violations of the spelling of individual words in a sentence, agrammatisms in writing.

I. N. Sadovnikova believes that, in relation to younger schoolchildren, it is more correct to speak not about violations, but about the difficulties of mastering written speech. The main symptom is the presence of persistent specific errors, the occurrence of which in students is not associated either with severe hearing and vision impairments or with the irregularity of schooling.

According to G.V. Chirkina, writing disorders in children are special difficulties that are caused by systemic underdevelopment of certain aspects of the child’s speech activity, which in children who have reached school age, with normal mental abilities and hearing, manifest themselves primarily in insufficient formation of ideas about the sound and morphological composition of the word.

O. B. Inshakova, L. I. Belyakova believe that writing disorders are a fairly common defect that occurs in primary school students of a comprehensive school and, as a rule, leads to. To persistent learning difficulties. Writing disorders may be due to a delay in the formation of certain functional systems that are important for the development of written speech, due to hazards that acted at different periods of the child's development. In addition, dysgraphia occurs with speech disorders (A. R. Luria, S. S. Lyapidevskaya, M. E. Khvattsev).

In the domestic literature, the concept of R. E. Levina is widespread, interpreting writing disorders as a manifestation of a systemic speech disorder, as a reflection of the underdevelopment of oral speech in all its links.

Often one of the causes of violations of the letter. There are difficulties in the formation of the laterization process (functional asymmetry in the activity of paired sensorimotor organs). Unformed in time, as well as cross-folding lateralitis reveals that the dominant role of one of the cerebral hemispheres has not been established. This can lead to speech development disorders. In cases of delay in the process of laterization and in various forms of "conflict of dominance", cortical control over many types of activity is also difficult.

The symptomatology of dysgraphia is manifested in specific (not related to the use of spelling rules), persistent and repetitive errors in the writing process, the occurrence of which is not associated with impaired intellectual or sensory development of the child or with the irregularity of schooling: distortion and replacement of letters; distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word; violations of the continuity of writing individual words in a sentence; agrammatisms in writing.

The writing errors are neither constant nor identical for a particular word. Such variability of violations shows. That none of the pathogenetic factors is decisive, but each is important in conjunction with others. It is impossible to find a universal explanation applicable to all cases of writing violations.

Dysgraphia can also be accompanied by non-speech symptoms (impaired cognitive activity, memory, attention, mental disorders). In these cases, non-speech symptoms are determined together with writing disorders and are included in the structure of neuropsychic and speech disorders (with dysarthria, alalia, speech disorders with mental retardation). At the same time, dysgraphia in children with normal intelligence can cause deviations in personality formation, certain mental stratifications. In children with dysgraphia, many higher mental functions are not formed: visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, auditory-pronunciation differentiation of speech sounds, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, lexical-grammatical structure of speech, memory disorders, attention, emotional - volitional sphere.

Classification of dysgraphia is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed writing operations.

M. E. Khvattsev identified 5 types of dysgraphia:

1. Dysgraphia on the basis of acoustic agnosia and defects in phonemic hearing. The mechanism, which, according to M.E. Khvattsev, is a violation of the associative links between vision and hearing, there are omissions, rearrangements, substitutions of letters, omissions of words, merging of two into one.

2. Dysgraphia on the basis of speech disorders.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the pronunciation rhythm.

4. Optical dysgraphia.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia.

According to R. I. Lalayeva, the classification of M. E. Khvattsev does not satisfy the idea of ​​writing disorders.

Tokareva O. A. identifies 3 types of dysgraphia:

1.Acoustic.

According to Tokareva O.A., it occurs with insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis, undifferentiated auditory perception. Mixing and omissions, substitutions of letters denoting sounds that are similar in articulation and sound, as well as reflections of incorrect sound pronunciation, are frequent in writing.

2. Optical dysgraphia.

This dysgraphia, according to Tokareva O.A., is due to the instability of visual impressions and ideas. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds. Due to the inaccuracy of visual perception at different moments, the letters are perceived differently and therefore are mixed in writing:p - n, p - i, y - i, c - u, w - i, m - l, b - d, p - t.

In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. Pupils write only individual letters, a mirror letter is also possible (words, letters, elements of letters are written from right to left).

3.Motor dysgraphia.

Motor dysgraphia is characterized by difficulties in hand movement during writing, a violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

According to R. I. Lalayeva, the allocation of types of dysgraphia on the basis of violations of the analyzer level is currently insufficiently substantiated, because. the process of writing is a complex form of speech activity, which includes a large number of operations at various levels: semantic, linguistic, sensorimotor.

The most reasonable is the classification developed by the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. A. I. Herzen (L. S. Volkova,

R. I. Lalaeva and others). The following types of dysgraphies are distinguished:

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia.

The child writes as he speaks. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, reliance on incorrect pronunciation. This dysgraphia is manifested in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Sometimes substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech.

2. Dysgraphia based on phonemic recognition(differentiation of phonemes) or acoustic dysgraphia.

According to R. I. Lalayeva appears in substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds. At the same time, in oral speech, the sounds are pronounced correctly. Most often replaced: whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, affricates and their constituent components (h - t, h - u, c - t, c - s). Errors appear in the letter: when denoting the softness of consonants(“lubit”, “lick”, “letter”); vowel substitutions, both stressed and unstressed (cloud - "tocha", forest - "fox").

In the most severe cases, letters are mixed that designate articulatory and acoustically distant sounds (l - k, b - c, p - n) with normal pronunciation of these sounds.

Tokareva O. A. believes that the basis for the replacement of letters denoting phonetically close sounds is the fuzziness of auditory perception, the inaccuracy of auditory differentiation of sounds.

R. I. Lalaeva believes that for correct writing, a finer auditory differentiation of sounds is necessary than for oral speech, because, on the one hand, the lack of auditory differentiation in oral speech can be compensated for by motor stereotypes fixed in speech experience, kinesthetic images. In the process of writing, in order to correctly distinguish and choose a phoneme, a subtle analysis of all acoustic features of sound that are meaningful is necessary. On the other hand, in the process of writing, the choice is made according to the representation, therefore, due to the fuzziness of auditory ideas about phonetically close sounds, the choice of one or another phoneme is difficult, which results in the replacement of letters in writing. R. Becker considers the difficulties of kinesthetic analysis to be the main reasons for the replacement of letters denoting phonetically similar sounds. R. Becker's research shows that children with dysgraphia do not use enough kinesthetic sensations (pronunciation) while writing.

R. E. Levina and L. F. Spirova associate the substitution of letters in writing with phonemic underdevelopment, with unformed ideas about the phoneme, with a violation of the phoneme selection operation.

For correct writing, a sufficient level of functioning of all operations of the process of distinguishing and choosing phonemes is necessary. If any link (auditory, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection, auditory and kinesthetic control) is violated, the whole process of phonemic recognition becomes difficult, which is manifested in the replacement of letters in writing.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis.

This dysgraphia is based on a violation of various forms of linguistic analysis and synthesis: division of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. This dysgraphia manifests itself in writing in distortions of the structure of words and sentences. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic analysis. Therefore, more often with this type of dysgraphia, there are distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word.

The most common errors are:

Omissions of consonants during their confluence (dictation - "dictation");

Vowel omissions ( at home - "dma");

Permutation of letters (dragged - "dragged");

Omissions, additions, permutations of syllables (room - "cat", glass - "kata").

Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia manifests itself: in the continuous spelling of words with other words, including prepositions (it's raining - "grandfather", in the house - "in the house»); separate spelling of the word (white birch grows by the window»); separate spelling of the prefix and the root of the word (came - "stepped on").

For the correct mastery of the writing process, it is necessary that the phonemic analysis be formed in the child not only in the external, speech, but also in the internal plan, according to the idea.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia.

According to R. E. Levina, R. I. Lalaeva, this dysgraphia is associated with the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech and can manifest itself at the level of a word, phrase, sentence, text, and is an integral part of a wider symptom complex - lexical and grammatical underdevelopment, which is observed in children with dysarthria, alalia and mentally retarded.

In coherent speech, children have great difficulties in establishing logical and linguistic connections between sentences. The sequence of sentences does not always correspond to the sequence of the described events; semantic and grammatical connections between individual sentences are violated.

At the level of sentences, agrammatisms in writing are manifested in:

Distortion of the morphological structure of the word, replacement of prefixes, suffixes (swept - "swept", kids - "goats");

Changing case endings("many trees");

Violation of prepositional constructions (above the table - "on the table");

Changing the case of pronouns (around him - "around him"). Noun number violation("children run") ; agreement violation ("beladom" ); violation of the syntactic design of speech, which manifests itself in the difficulties of constructing complex sentences, skipping members of a sentence, violating the sequence of words in a sentence.

5. Optical dysgraphia.

This dysgraphia is associated with the underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis, spatial representations and is manifested in the substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.

Most often, graphically similar handwritten letters are replaced: consisting of the same elements, but differently located in space ( c - e, t - w ); containing the same elements, but differing in additional elements (i - w, p - t, x - f, l - m); mirror spelling of letters; omissions of elements, especially when connecting letters that include the same element, superfluous and incorrectly located elements.

The etiological study of writing disorders is complicated by the fact that it is always retrospective, tk. the factors that caused these disorders may fade into the background by the time they enter school. Nevertheless, the analysis of literature data allows us to establish a number of causes that have arisen simultaneously or sequentially.

Violation of writing may be due to a delay in the formation of certain functional systems that are important for the development of written speech, due to hazards that operate at different periods of a child's development. In addition, dysgraphia occurs with organic speech disorders. R. E. Levina interprets a violation of writing as a manifestation of a systemic violation of speech, as a reflection of the underdevelopment of oral speech in all its links. I. N. Sadovnikova considers one of the reasons the difficulties in the formation of the process of lateralization (functional asymmetry in the activity of paired sensorimotor organs). Unformed in time, as well as cross-folding lateralitis reveals that the dominant role of one of the cerebral hemispheres has not been established. This can lead to speech development disorders. Dysgraphia may be the result of a disorder that occurs in a vast area of ​​praxis and gnosis, which provide the perception of space and time, because. the most important factor of dysgraphia is the difficulty of finding the starting point in space and time. And also in the analysis and reproduction of the exact and temporal sequence. Perhaps a combination of dysgraphia with mental deficiency, hearing or vision loss, bilingualism in the family, irregular schooling.

In the works of A. R. Luria and S. S. Lyapidevsky, the mechanisms of writing and reading are considered from the standpoint of modern neurophysiology. As is known from neurology, at the end of the 19th century, writing was viewed in a simplified way, as a purely motor process, which easily relies on a narrowly limited area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe cerebral cortex. O. A. Trkareva writes that the researchers of that time, along with the centers of visual functions, centers for auditory and motor speech, also spoke about a special "writing center" (the so-called Exner center - the middle part of the motor area of ​​the left hemisphere). The mechanism of the reading process is undoubtedly dynamic, forming gradually. In the process of learning to read and write, automated writing and reading skills are developed. “At the basis of their formation,” writes S. S. Lyapidevsky, “is a chain of conditioned reflexes superimposed on each other, entering into an interconnection. Thus, the gradual formation of temporary connections (conditioned reflexes) creates certain dynamic stereotypes in the process of learning to read and write, which in the language of psychology is defined by the concept of “skill”.

The act of writing is carried out by the coordinated work of a number of physiological components. Participating in the organization of this process. Various analyzers take part in the processes of reading and writing: auditory, visual, motor, violation of any of them creates a deviation in the normal course of the specified act. The role of a full-fledged auditory analyzer in the act of writing is extremely important. Correct writing requires a precisely differentiated phoneme and its strong connection with the letter. Difficulties in teaching writing and peculiar errors in writing by students of a mass school are often associated precisely with defects in acoustic analysis and synthesis.

The acoustic analyzer is closely related to the motor and speech-motor (kinesthetic) analyzer. The significance of the motor analyzer in various arbitrary acts is exceptionally important. According to S. S. Lyapidevsky, in children, underdevelopment or weakening of the activity of the motor analyzer may be accompanied by the development of pathological inertia in the formation of motor reflexes, which is also reflected in the formation of writing skills. However, writing is not a narrow-motor act associated only with the movement of the hand. Writing is a kind of verbal expression. According to R. E. Levina, a full-fledged sound analysis is necessary for correct writing. Sound analysis involves sufficient mastery of the sound composition of the word, its acticulation and perception. In the process of writing, the sound composition of the written off word needs to be clarified. This clarification is carried out by pronouncing the written word.

I. M. Sechenov wrote about the connection between the development of auditory perception. According to the author, auditory sensations have the advantage over others that they are already closely associated in early childhood with muscle movements in the chest, larynx, lips, i.e. with feelings in his own conversation. On this basis, auditory memory is also reinforced by tactile memory.

OA Tokareva believes that the process of writing is not limited to the analysis of the sound composition of the word. There are violations in the letter, due to the predominant defeat of the optical systems in the cerebral cortex (occipital-parietal region of the cortex of the left hemisphere). A. R. Luria noted that this nature of the disturbances is due to the fact that the occipital-parietal region of the cerebral cortex is the central apparatus that allows for the whole visual perception of a person, translating visual sensations into complex optical images. Preserve and differentiate visual representations and, ultimately, implement the most complex and generalized forms of visual and spatial cognition. In some cases, with this violation, writing is generally impossible, since such a patient loses the graphic image of the letters and cannot reproduce them.

The process of writing is not limited to the participation of the considered mechanisms. The unit of writing is not a designation of a sound or a letter, but a combination of successive sounds that make up a complex of syllables that form a whole word. It is the observance of the desired sequence of sounds, and then the letters that display patterns of sounds, combining them into sound complexes of syllables. Forming then a whole word, it is difficult for children during the initial formation of writing skills.

Dysgraphia is a partial violation of the writing process, manifested in persistent, repetitive errors due to the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the writing process.

Dysgraphia is a significant percentage of other speech disorders found in students of secondary schools. It is a serious obstacle in the acquisition of literacy by students at the initial stages of education, and at later stages in mastering the grammar of their native language.

Various terms are used in modern literature to refer to specific writing disorders. Partial impairment of writing is called dysgraphia, complete inability to write is called agraphia.

In a number of countries (for example, in the USA), reading and writing disorders are defined by the same term "dyslexia". In other countries, specific writing disorders are defined by the term "dysorphography" (for example, in France).

In domestic literature, the terms "dysgraphia" and "dysorphography" are opposed, i.e. are delimited.

For the differential diagnosis of these disorders, it is necessary to clarify the criteria on the basis of which errors in dysgraphia and dysorphography are distinguished. Such a main criterion is the principle of spelling, which is mainly violated. It is known that the following basic principles are distinguished in Russian orthography:

phonetic (phonemic),

morphological,

traditional.

The phonetic (phonemic) principle of spelling is based on the sound (phonemic) analysis of speech.

Words are written as they are heard and pronounced (house, grass, ditch). The writer analyzes the sound composition of the word and designates sounds with certain letters. Thus, for the implementation of the phonemic principle of writing, the formation of phoneme differentiation and phonemic analysis is necessary.

The morphological principle is that the morphemes of words (root, prefix, suffix, ending) with the same meaning have the same spelling, although their pronunciation in a strong and weak position may be different (house - do (a) mA, table - one hundred ( a) ly). The use of the morphological principle presupposes the ability to determine the meaningful morphemes of a word, determine the morphological structure of a word, identify morphemes with the same meaning, the pronunciation of which may differ in different phonetic conditions. The level of development of morphological analysis is closely related to the development of the vocabulary and grammatical structure of speech.

And, finally, the traditional principle presupposes such a spelling of the word that has developed in the history of the development of writing and cannot be explained by the phonetic or morphological principle of spelling.

Taking into account the principles of orthography, it can be concluded that dysgraphia is mainly associated with a violation of the implementation of the phonetic principle, and with dysorphography, the use of morphological and traditional spelling principles is violated.

Symptoms

In accordance with the definition of the term "dysgraphia", the following features of errors in dysgraphia can be distinguished:

1. As in dyslexia, errors in dysgraphia are persistent and specific, which makes it possible to distinguish these errors from errors of “growth”, “physiological” (according to B.G. Ananiev) errors that naturally occur in children when mastering writing. At the same time, it should be noted that errors in dysgraphia are similar in appearance to the so-called physiological errors. However, in dysgraphia, these errors are more numerous, repetitive and persist for a long time.

2. Dysgraphic errors are associated with the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the process of writing - differentiation of phonemes by ear and pronunciation, analysis of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis, lexico-grammatical structure of speech, optical-spatial functions.

Violation of elementary functions (analyzer) can also lead to writing disorders. But these writing disorders are not considered as dysgraphia.

Violation of writing in children (for example, with mental retardation) may be associated with pedagogical neglect, with impaired attention, control, which disorganize the entire process of writing as a complex speech activity. However, in this case, errors, if they are not associated with the unformedness of higher mental functions, are not specific, but variable in nature and therefore are not dysgraphic.

3. Mistakes in dysgraphia are characterized by a violation of the phonetic principle of writing, i.e. errors are observed in a strong phonetic position (paddle - instead of a shovel, dm - house), in contrast to spelling errors, which are observed only in a weak phonetic position (water - water, lady - at home).

4. Errors are characterized as dysgraphic in the case when they are observed in children of school age.

In preschool children, writing is accompanied by numerous errors, similar in nature and manifestation to dysgraphic ones. However, in preschool children, many of the mental functions that ensure the process of writing are still insufficiently formed. Therefore, these errors are natural, “physiological”.

The following groups of errors in dysgraphia are distinguished:

Distorted spelling of letters (for example, e - s, s - e)

Handwriting substitutions:

a) graphically similar (e.g., c - e, l - m, c - w)

b) denoting phonetically similar sounds (eg, d - t, b - n, d - k)

3. Distortion of the sound-letter structure of the word: permutations, additions, perseverations, contamination of letters, syllables (for example, spring - spring, camp - country, coolbock - ball).

4. Distortion of the structure of the sentence: random spelling of the word, continuous spelling of words, contamination of words (for example, rooks fly from warm countries).

5. Agrammatisms in writing (for example, a lot of pencils, no keys, on branches).

Types of dysgraphia

Based on modern ideas about the essence of dysgraphia, the most significant criterion for classifying dysgraphia is the lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process. Based on this criterion, the following types of dysgraphia can be distinguished:

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia

This form of dysgraphia was identified by M.E. Khvattsev. In the classification of M.E. Khvattsev, it was designated as dysgraphia on the basis of speech disorders, or "tongue-tiedness in writing."

The mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is the incorrect pronunciation of speech sounds, which is reflected in the letter: the child writes the words as he pronounces them.

It is known that at the initial stages of mastering writing, a child

often pronounces the words he writes down. Speaking can be loud, whispered, or internal. In the process of pronunciation, the sound structure of the word, the nature of sounds is specified.

A child with a violation of sound pronunciation fixes it in writing.

According to R.E. Levina, G.A. Kashe and others, pronunciation deficiencies are reflected in writing only when they are accompanied by a violation of auditory differentiation, unformed phonemic representations.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in mixtures, substitutions, omissions of letters, which correspond to mixtures, substitutions, and the absence of sounds in oral speech. This type of dysgraphia is predominantly observed in children with polymorphic impairment of sound pronunciation, especially with dysarthria, rhinolalia, sensory and sensorimotor dyslalia.

In a number of cases, substitutions of letters in writing persist in children even after the substitutions of sounds in oral speech have been eliminated. The reason for this is the lack of formation of kinesthetic images of sounds; during internal pronunciation, there is no reliance on the correct articulation of sounds.

It should be noted that a violation of sound pronunciation is not always reflected in writing, especially in cases where the auditory differentiation of sounds is well formed, and the replacement of sounds in oral speech is due to insufficient articulatory motility.

Dysgraphia based on impaired phonemic recognition

(differentiation of phonemes)

according to traditional terminology - acoustic dysgraphia.

This type of dysgraphia is manifested in the replacement of letters denoting phonetically close sounds, in violation of the designation of the softness of consonants in writing. More often, letters are mixed in writing, denoting whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, affricates and the components that make up their composition (h - t, ch-sh, ts-t, ts-s, s-sh, s-zh, b- p, d-t, g-k, etc.), as well as vowels o-y, e-i.

Most often, the mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is associated with the inaccuracy of auditory differentiation of sounds, while the pronunciation of sounds is normal (a finer auditory differentiation is needed than for oral speech).

In other cases, children with this form of dysgraphia have an inaccuracy in the kinesthetic images of sounds, which prevents the correct choice of phoneme and its correlation with the letter.

Dysgraphia due to violation of language analysis and synthesis

The mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is a violation of the following forms of language analysis and synthesis:

analysis of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis.

The unformedness of the analysis of sentences into words is found in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions;

in separate spelling of words; especially prefixes and roots.

Pr-r: Summer pareke and dut parhodi.

The most common mistakes in this type of dysgraphia is the distortion of the sound-letter structure of the word, due to the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis, which is the most complex form of sound analysis.

The most common mistakes:

omissions of consonants during their confluence (doji-rains, decks-days)

omissions of vowels

permutations of letters (doll-doll, packets-droplets)

adding letters (spring-spring)

omissions, additions, permutations of syllables (bicycle-bicycle).

Agrammatic dysgraphia

manifests itself in writing and is determined by the lack of formation of the lexical and grammatical structure of speech.

Agrammatisms in writing differ at the level of words, phrases, sentences and texts. Most often, morphological and morphosyntactic agrammatisms, violations of control coordination are found in children with dysgraphia.

N-r: Behind the house (behind the house) is a barn.

It was a hot day.

Optical dysgraphia

This type of dysgraphia is due to the lack of formation of visual-spatial functions: visual gnosis, visual mnesis, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations. With optical dysgraphia, the following types of writing disorders are observed:

a) distorted reproduction of letters in a letter (incorrect reproduction of the spatial relationship of letter elements, mirror spelling of letters, missing elements, extra elements);

b) replacement and mixing of graphically similar letters.

As with dyslexia, most often either letters are mixed that differ in one element (P-T, L-M, I-Sh), or letters consisting of the same or similar elements, but differently located in space (V-D, E- FROM).

One of the manifestations of optical dysgraphia is mirror writing: mirror writing of letters, writing from left to right, which can be observed in left-handed people with organic brain damage.

Optical dysgraphia is divided into literal and verbal.

Literal dysgraphia manifests itself in the difficulty of reproducing even isolated letters.

In verbal dysgraphia, the reproduction of isolated letters is preserved. However, when writing words, there are distortions of letters, replacement and mixing of graphically similar letters, contextual influences of neighboring letters on the reproduction of the visual image of a letter.

Conclusion

A speech therapist is not an understudy of a teacher and not a tutor, while doing his main job of correcting speech defects in children, he must create a platform for the successful assimilation and correct application of grammatical rules by students, i.e. on the one hand, to bring students to an understanding of grammatical rules, and on the other hand, to consolidate the educational material given by the teacher, associated with the correctional process.

The main task is to educate children's linguistic instinct.

The relationship between the correctional and teaching processes contributes to the successful assimilation by students of the material on their native language as a whole.

Dysgraphia - how to help a child?

Children with dysgraphia can fully master writing, provided they continue to study hard. For some, months are enough; for others, it takes years. Letter vision and speech hearing are exercised.

It is imperative to contact a speech therapist: a speech therapist uses all kinds of games, works out the differences in pronunciation from hard to soft. You also need to contact a psychoneurologist who will advise medications that improve metabolism and memory. Dysgraphia needs to be defeated, but only through the common efforts of parents, a speech therapist, and a psychoneurologist.

Parents can help the child overcome dysgraphia if they conduct classes with him according to the following methodology: for 5 minutes the child will cross out these letters. You can start with vowels, then move on to consonants. You can underline, strikethrough, circle letters.

You can also practice with paired consonants if the child has trouble distinguishing them. As classes progress, the quality of writing improves. The purpose of the subsequent task is to allow the child to personally check his mistakes. To do this, give him an eraser and a pencil. Dictate a not very large text of 1000 characters. Errors do not need to be corrected in the text. In the margins should be marked with a blue pen (do not use red). Give the text to correct the child. He has the ability to erase mistakes and write correctly. The child himself seeks out and corrects mistakes, it is not written in the notebook, the notebook is in excellent condition. When a red pen is used, it creates a negative effect - the child begins to worry and make even more mistakes.

It is also necessary to fulfill the following conditions: let the child feel interest and success, triples and deuces discourage his desire to master writing. Do not control the child on the speed of reading. When he can only read 30 words per minute, and the rest 200, do not scold him for this, otherwise he will worry and stutter, and may not read the text at all. Traditionally, the following test is carried out at school: the child is asked to go to the blackboard, an hourglass is set, the teacher looks at the child and notes the time, leads along the line with a pencil, and I measure the reading speed. And if the test is conducted by a teacher, then the child begins to worry even more. In children with dysgraphia, neurosis can form against the background of such exams.

For children with dysgraphia, it is not the quantity that matters, but the quality. You must first develop oral speech, and then writing. The main thing is not to get angry with your parents, not to get excited, not to get too excited. Conviction in success, your endurance, harmonious state - the key to excellent results. It is difficult to overcome dysgraphia in children, it is necessary to coordinate the work of the child, his parents, a psychoneurologist, a speech therapist, only common work and patience, the child’s desire to master writing will solve the problem with illiteracy of written speech.

There are different types of dysgraphia and all of them are overcome in different ways, which is associated with their different causation. But at the same time, there are a number of such fundamentally important provisions, the consideration of which is necessary to successfully overcome any type of dysgraphia. We consider it necessary to draw the reader's attention to two such provisions.

Firstly, work on overcoming dysgraphia of any kind should never begin directly with exercises in writing, with attempts to eliminate errors in it - this will not give the desired result. First, it is necessary to carry out to the norm those operations that prepare the process of writing and without the proper level of formation of which writing, in principle, cannot proceed normally. So, for example, if a child with acoustic dysgraphia does not distinguish some sounds by ear and, therefore, allows appropriate letter substitutions in writing, then it is useless to exercise him in writing without first teaching him to distinguish sounds. It's the same with all other types of dysgraphia. What is the point of conducting endless dictations with a child who does not know how to analyze the speech flow or is not able to distinguish between letters similar in style? These will be only exercises in incorrect writing, and nothing more.

Secondly, in the process of work on leveling the "falling links" one should go "bypassing" and rely as much as possible on preserved functions. For example, if a child does not distinguish between the sounds С and Ш by ear, then at first you can draw his attention to the different position of the lips and tongue when pronouncing these sounds, that is, rely on vision and kinesthetic sense (sense of the position of the articulatory organs). When letters are not distinguished by their appearance (immaturity of visual analysis and synthesis), they often resort to writing letters in the air with the vision turned off, i.e. to support on a motor analyzer, etc. These techniques are well known to speech therapists and are very widely used by them, which is also useful for teachers and parents to keep in mind.

It is important to take into account one more circumstance. Sometimes in children who make dysgraphic errors, it is not possible to identify violations of any specific writing operations (indistinguishment of sounds, unrecognition of letters, difficulties in analyzing the speech flow, etc.). For this reason, it may seem that there is no ground for dysgraphia here. Such cases have their own explanation. Writing is a complex speech activity that includes a number of operations at various levels that must be carried out simultaneously. So, in the process of writing down words, the child should be able to distinguish all the sounds that make up them, correlate these sounds with certain letters, while choosing the appropriate alphabetic characters and translating visual images of letters into motor ones, and also determine the sequence of sounds in a word, not to mention the need to comply with graphic norms and at least the most elementary grammatical rules. It is difficult for a child to coordinate all these operations, it is difficult to distribute his attention between them, performing all of them synchronously and at the same time switching from one operation to another in a timely manner. Therefore, it is not surprising that a child who successfully copes with the implementation of each individual operation cannot perform all of them at the same time, which leads to dysgraphic errors. However, this impossibility of combining all the necessary writing operations is still more characteristic of children with insufficient fluency in each of them separately.

Causes of dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia is not considered as an independent disease, it is more often considered as a symptom of various encephalopic neurological dysfunctions and disorders. Often, dysgraphia is assessed as the effect of pathologies in the analytical and synthetic functioning of the motor, auditory, speech, and visual analyzers. A child who suffers from dysgraphia does not fully have the ability to synthesize and analyze various information.

Based on this, dysgraphia can be classified into motor, acoustic and optical.

There is also another point of view, which recognizes that dysgraphia is a language disorder, which lends itself to special psychological and pedagogical methods of elimination.

Dysgraphia - what does it look like in practice?

With dysgraphia, children do not use capital letters, and their dictations include a lot of errors. When writing, children use short phrases with a small vocabulary set. Children are afraid that they will be scolded, as a result of this they refuse to go to Russian language lessons or complete assignments. Children with dysgraphia feel that everyone is laughing at them, that they are inferior, and may often be in a state of depression.

A child with dysgraphia confuses the letters: Z, E; R and b. Such children write dictations unevenly, slowly, if they are upset by something, then their handwriting is completely impossible to distinguish. It is also necessary to understand that the errors that were made due to ignorance of the rules of grammar are not dysgraphia.

If a child has a hearing impairment, it is difficult for him to learn to write and read. It is difficult for him to master written speech, since he is unable to determine what sound this or that letter means. The rapid flow of speech completely disorients the baby. Teaching literacy to a child who has speech hearing impairments is not an easy pedagogical task.

To study writing, a child must have a satisfactory intellectual level, speech hearing and remember how letters are written. The unequal formation of the cerebral hemispheres can also be a prerequisite for dysgraphia. The center of speech is located in the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere gives the answer for the correct understanding of images, symbols. A child with dysraphia has great difficulty studying writing, but draws well. The inability to acquire language does not prevent these children from "talking" through drawing.

Parents should pay attention to the mirror bias of the reflection of the letters. Letters can be flipped to the other side. A special role is played by the factor of heredity, when the child is inherited by the underdevelopment of brain structures.

The basis of dysgraphia can also be bilingualism in the family. Many families leave their homeland, move, and learn another language.

How to detect dysgraphia?

Dysgraphia is determined by the presence of “peculiar errors”: a child can skip syllables, letters, words, rearrange them, shift and change letters, and does not recognize letters that are similar in outline. Violation of the agreement of words, construction of a sentence, links in a sentence.

Dysgraphia classification

The classification of dysgraphia is carried out on the basis of various criteria:

taking into account disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed

writing operations.

OA Tokareva distinguishes 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.

With acoustic dysgraphia, there is a lack of differentiation of the auditory

perception, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Frequent

are mixtures and omissions, substitutions of letters denoting sounds similar in

articulation and sound, as well as the reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation on

Optical dysgraphia is due to the instability of visual impressions and

representations. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correlate with certain

sounds. Letters are perceived differently at different times. Due to

inaccuracies of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. Most often

mixing of the following handwritten letters is observed:

In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. Child writes

only single letters. In some cases, especially in left-handers, there is

mirror writing, when words, letters, elements of letters are written from right to left.

Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulty in moving the hand during

letters, violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

Modern psychological and psycholinguistic study of the writing process

indicates that it is a complex form of speech activity,

including a large number of operations of various levels: semantic,

linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the allocation of types of dysgraphia based on

violations of the analyzer level is currently not enough

justified.

The types of dysgraphia identified by M. E. Khvattsev also do not satisfy today's

representation of violations of the letter. Consider them

1. Dysgraphia on the basis of acoustic agnosia and defects in phonemic hearing.

In this form, the write-off is preserved.

The physiological mechanism of the defect is the violation of associative links

between vision and hearing, there are omissions, permutations, substitutions of letters, and

also the merging of two words into one, omissions of words, etc.

The basis of this type is the non-differentiation of auditory perception.

sound composition of the word, insufficiency of phonemic analysis.

a violation of the differentiation of sounds and a violation of phonemic analysis and

2. Dysgraphia due to speech disorders (“graphic

tongue-tiedness"). According to M.E. Khvattsev, it arises on the basis of an incorrect

sound pronunciation. Replacing some sounds with others, the absence of sounds in

pronunciation cause the corresponding substitutions and omissions of sounds in writing. M. E.

Khvattsev also singles out a special form due to the "experienced" tongue-tied tongue (when

the sound pronunciation disorder disappeared before the start of literacy training or after the start

mastery of writing). The more severe the violation of pronunciation, the

coarser and more varied writing errors. The allocation of this type of dysgraphia is recognized

justified at present.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the pronunciation rhythm. M. E. Khvattsev

believes that as a result of a disorder of pronunciation rhythm in writing

there are omissions of vowels, syllables, endings. Errors may be due

either underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or distortions

sound-syllabic structure of the word.

4. Optical dysgraphia. Caused by a disorder or deficiency

optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of the visual

images of letters, words. With literal dysgraphia, a child's visual

the image of a letter, there are distortions and replacements of isolated letters. With verbal

dysgraphia, writing isolated letters is safe, but with difficulty

a visual image of the word is formed, the child writes words with gross errors.

With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish between similar graphically handwritten

letters: p - k, p. - i, s - o, i - w, l - m.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions,

distortions of the structure of the word, sentence and is caused by the disintegration of oral speech

due to organic brain damage.

The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on

the unformedness of certain operations of the writing process (developed

employees of the Department of Logopedics of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen). The following

types of dysgraphia: articulatory-acoustic, based on phonemic disorders

recognition (differentiation of phonemes), on the basis of a violation of linguistic

analysis and synthesis, agrammatical and optical dysgraphia.

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is in many ways similar to the isolated M.

E. Khvattsev with dysgraphia on the basis of speech disorders.

The child writes as he speaks. It is based on the reflection of the wrong

pronunciation in writing, reliance on incorrect pronunciation. Relying on

the process of pronunciation for incorrect pronunciation of sounds, the child reflects

his faulty pronunciation in writing.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in substitutions, omissions of letters,

corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Most often

observed in dysarthria, rhinolalia, polymorphic dyslalia. Sometimes

substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech.

In this case, we can assume that during internal pronunciation there is no

sufficient reliance on correct articulation, since the

clear kinesthetic images of sounds. But substitutions and omissions of sounds are not always

reflected in the letter. This is due to the fact that in some cases

compensation due to preserved functions (for example, due to a clear auditory

differentiation, due to the formation of phonemic functions).

Dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition (differentiation

phonemes). According to traditional terminology, this is acoustic dysgraphia.

It manifests itself in the substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds. Wherein

in oral speech, sounds are pronounced correctly. Most often, letters are replaced

denoting the following sounds: whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, affricates

and the components included in their composition (h - t, h - u, c - t, c -

With). This type of dysgraphia is also manifested in the incorrect designation of softness.

consonants in writing due to a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft

consonants (“letter”, “lubit”, “licking”). Common mistakes are vowel substitutions

even in a shock position, for example, o - y (tuma - "point"), e -

and (forest - "foxes").

In the most striking form, dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition

observed with sensory alalia and aphasia. In severe cases, letters are mixed,

denoting distant articulatory and acoustic sounds (l - k, b -

c, n - k). At the same time, the pronunciation of sounds corresponding to the mixed letters,

is normal.

There is no consensus on the mechanisms of this type of dysgraphia. it

due to the complexity of the process of phonemic recognition.

According to researchers (I. A. Zimnyaya, E. F. Sobotovich, L. A. Chistovich),

the multilevel process of phonemic recognition includes various operations.

1. During perception, an auditory analysis of speech is carried out (analytical

decomposition of a synthetic sound image, selection of acoustic features

followed by their synthesis).

2. The acoustic image is translated into an articulatory solution, which

provided by proporioceptive analysis, preservation of kinesthetic

perceptions and ideas.

3. Auditory and kinesthetic images are held for the time needed to

decision-making.

4. The sound is correlated with the phoneme, the phoneme selection operation takes place.

5. On the basis of auditory and kinesthetic control, comparison with

sample and then the final decision is made.

In the process of writing, the phoneme is associated with a certain visual image of the letter.

letters denoting phonetically close sounds, lies the fuzziness of the auditory

perception, inaccuracy of auditory differentiation of sounds.

Correct writing requires finer auditory differentiation

sounds than for spoken language. This is due, on the one hand, to the phenomenon

redundancy of perception of semantically significant units of oral speech. small

insufficiency of auditory differentiation in oral speech, if any,

can be replenished at the expense of redundancy, at the expense of fixed in speech experience

motor stereotypes, kinesthetic images. In the process of writing to

correct discrimination and choice of a phoneme requires a fine analysis of all

acoustic signs of sound, which are semantic-distinctive.

On the other hand, in the process of writing, the differentiation of sounds, the choice of phonemes

carried out on the basis of trace activity, auditory images,

representation. Due to the fuzziness of auditory ideas about phonetically

close sounds, the choice of one or another phoneme is difficult, which results in

writing disorders in mentally retarded children, link substitutions of letters with the fact that

in phonemic recognition, children rely on articulatory signs of sounds and

do not use auditory control.

In contrast to these studies, R. Becker and A. Kossovsky, the main

the mechanism for replacing letters denoting phonetically close sounds is considered

difficulties of kinesthetic analysis. Their research shows that children with

dysgraphia does not use kinesthetic sensations enough (speaking)

while writing. They are not helped much by pronunciation, as during auditory

dictation, as well as independent writing. Speech exception (method

L.K. Nazarova) does not affect the number of errors, i.e. does not lead to them

increase. At the same time, the exclusion of speaking while writing in children

without dysgraphia leads to an increase in errors in writing by 8-9 times.

underdevelopment, with unformed ideas about the phoneme, with a violation

phoneme selection operations (R. E. Levina, L. F. Spirova).

Correct writing requires a sufficient level of functioning of all

operations of the process of distinguishing and choosing phonemes. If any link is broken

(auditory, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection operations, auditory and

kinesthetic control) the whole process of phonemic

recognition, which is manifested in the replacement of letters in a letter. Therefore, taking into account

of impaired phonemic recognition operations, the following subspecies can be distinguished

this form of dysgraphia: acoustic, kinesthetic, phonemic.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis. At the heart of it

lies the violation of various forms of linguistic analysis and synthesis: division of sentences

into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. Language underdevelopment

analysis and synthesis is manifested in writing in distortions of the structure of the word and

suggestions. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic

analysis. As a result, especially common in this type of dysgraphia

there will be distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word.

The following errors are most typical: omissions of consonants during their confluence

(dictation - "dikat", school - "cola"); vowel gaps (dog

- “sbaka”, at home - “dma”); permutations of letters (trail - "prota",

window - "kono"); adding letters (drag - "drag"); passes,

additions, permutation of syllables (room - "cat", glass -

For the correct mastery of the writing process, it is necessary that the phonemic

analysis was formed in the child not only in the external, speech, but also in

internally, according to the idea.

Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia is manifested in

confluent spelling of words, especially prepositions, with other words (it's raining

- “I’m gone”, in the house - “in the house”); separate spelling of the word (white

a birch grows by the window - “belabe will grow an eye”); separate spelling

prefixes and the root of the word (stepped - “stepped on”).

Writing disorders due to unformed phonemic analysis and

synthesis are widely represented in the works of R. E. Levina, N. A. Nikashina, D. I.

Orlova, G. V. Chirkina.

- partial disorder of the writing process associated with insufficient formation (or decay) of mental functions involved in the implementation and control of written speech. Dysgraphia is manifested by persistent, typical and repetitive writing errors that do not disappear on their own, without targeted training. Diagnosis of dysgraphia includes analysis of written works, examination of oral and written speech using a special technique. Corrective work to overcome dysgraphia requires the elimination of violations of sound pronunciation, the development of phonemic processes, vocabulary, grammar, coherent speech, non-speech functions.

ICD-10

R48.8 Other and unspecified disorders of recognition and understanding of symbols and signs

General information

Dysgraphia - specific shortcomings of writing caused by a violation of the HMF involved in the process of writing. According to studies, dysgraphia is detected in 53% of second grade students and 37-39% of middle school students, which indicates the stability of this form of speech impairment. The high prevalence of dysgraphia among schoolchildren is associated with the fact that about half of kindergarten graduates enter the first grade with FFN or OHP, in the presence of which the process of full literacy is impossible.

According to the severity of disorders of the writing process in speech therapy, dysgraphia and agraphia are distinguished. In dysgraphia, writing is distorted but continues to function as a means of communication. Agraphia is characterized by a primary inability to master writing skills, their complete loss. Since writing and reading are inextricably linked, a writing disorder (dysgraphia, agraphia) is usually accompanied by a reading disorder (dyslexia, alexia).

Causes of dysgraphia

Mastering the process of writing is closely related to the degree of formation of all aspects of oral speech: sound pronunciation, phonemic perception, lexical and grammatical side of speech, coherent speech. Therefore, the development of dysgraphia may be based on the same organic and functional causes that cause dyslalia, alalia, dysarthria, aphasia, delayed psychoverbal development.

Underdevelopment or damage to the brain in the prenatal, natal, postnatal periods can lead to the subsequent appearance of dysgraphia: pathology of pregnancy, birth trauma, asphyxia, meningitis and encephalitis, infections and severe somatic diseases that cause depletion of the child's nervous system.

The socio-psychological factors contributing to the occurrence of dysgraphia include bilingualism (bilingualism) in the family, fuzzy or incorrect speech of others, lack of speech contacts, inattention to the child's speech by adults, unjustifiably early teaching of the child to read and write in the absence of psychological readiness. The risk group for the occurrence of dysgraphia is children with a constitutional predisposition, various speech disorders, mental retardation.

Dysgraphia or agraphia in adults is most often caused by traumatic brain injuries, strokes, brain tumors, and neurosurgical interventions.

Mechanisms of dysgraphia

Writing is a complex multi-level process, in the implementation of which various analyzers participate: speech-motor, speech-auditory, visual, motor, carrying out the sequential translation of an article into a phoneme, a phoneme into a grapheme, a grapheme into a kineme. The key to successful mastery of writing is a sufficiently high level of development of oral speech. However, unlike oral speech, written speech can develop only under the condition of purposeful learning.

In accordance with modern concepts, the pathogenesis of dysgraphia in children is associated with the untimely formation of the process of lateralization of brain functions, including the establishment of the cerebral hemisphere, which is dominant in controlling speech functions. Normally, these processes should be completed by the beginning of schooling. If lateralization is delayed and the child has latent left-handedness, cortical control over the writing process is disrupted. With dysgraphia, there is an unformed HMF (perception, memory, thinking), emotional-volitional sphere, visual analysis and synthesis, optical-spatial representations, phonemic processes, syllabic analysis and synthesis, lexico-grammatical side of speech.

From the point of view of psycholinguistics, the mechanisms of dysgraphia are considered as a violation of the operations of generating a written statement: intent and internal programming, lexico-grammatical structuring, dividing a sentence into words, phonemic analysis, correlation of a phoneme with a grapheme, motor implementation of writing under visual and kinesthetic control.

Dysgraphia classification

Depending on the lack of formation or violation of a particular operation of writing, 5 forms of dysgraphia are distinguished:

• articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia associated with impaired articulation, sound pronunciation and phonemic perception;
• acoustic dysgraphia associated with impaired phonemic recognition;
• dysgraphia on the basis of unformed language analysis and synthesis;
• agrammatic dysgraphia associated with underdevelopment of the lexical and grammatical side of speech;
• optical dysgraphia associated with the lack of formation of visual-spatial representations.

Along with "pure" forms of dysgraphia, mixed forms are found in speech therapy practice.

The modern classification distinguishes:

I. Specific writing disorders:

1. Dysgraphia:

• 1.1. Dysphonological dysgraphia (parallic, phonemic).
• 1.2. Metalinguistic dysgraphia (dyspraxic or motor, dysgraphia due to impaired language operations).

• 2.1. Morphological dysorphography.
• 2.2. Syntactic dysorphographies.

II. Non-specific writing disorders associated with pedagogical neglect, ZPR, UO, etc.

Symptoms of dysgraphia

Signs that characterize dysgraphia include typical and persistent errors in writing that are not related to ignorance of the rules and norms of the language. Typical errors that occur in various types of dysgraphia can be manifested by mixing and replacing graphically similar handwritten letters (sh-sh, t-sh, v-d, m-l) or phonetically similar sounds in writing (b–p, d–t, d–k, w-g); distortion of the letter-syllabic structure of the word (omissions, permutations, addition of letters and syllables); violation of the unity and separation of the spelling of words; agrammatisms in writing (violation of inflection and agreement of words in a sentence). In addition, with dysgraphia, children write slowly, their handwriting is usually difficult to distinguish. There may be fluctuations in the height and slope of letters, slippage from the line, replacement of uppercase letters by lowercase letters and vice versa. One can speak about the presence of dysgraphia only after the child masters the technique of writing, that is, not earlier than 8–8.5 years.

In the case of articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia, specific errors in writing are associated with incorrect sound pronunciation (both pronouncing and writing). In this case, substitutions and omissions of letters in writing repeat the corresponding sound errors in oral speech. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia occurs with polymorphic dyslalia, rhinolalia, dysarthria (i.e., in children with phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment of speech).

With acoustic dysgraphia, sound pronunciation is not impaired, however, phonemic perception is not sufficiently formed. Errors in writing are in the nature of substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically similar sounds (whistling - hissing, voiced - deaf and vice versa, affricate - their components).

Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of linguistic analysis and synthesis is characterized by a violation of the division of words into syllables, and sentences into words. With this form of dysgraphia, the student skips, repeats or rearranges letters and syllables; writes extra letters in a word or does not finish the end of words; writes words with prepositions together, and with prefixes separately. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis is most common among schoolchildren.

Agrammatic dysgraphia is characterized by multiple agrammatisms in writing: incorrect change of words in cases, genders and numbers; violation of the agreement of words in a sentence; violation of prepositional constructions (incorrect sequence of words, omissions of sentence members, etc.). Agrammatic dysgraphia usually accompanies a general underdevelopment of speech due to alalia, dysarthria.

With optical dysgraphia, graphically similar letters are replaced or mixed in writing. If the recognition and reproduction of isolated letters is impaired, one speaks of literal optical dysgraphia; if the inscription of letters in a word is violated, - about verbal optical dysgraphia. Typical errors encountered in optical dysgraphia include underwriting or adding elements of letters (l instead of m; x instead of w and vice versa), mirror spelling of letters.

Quite often, with dysgraphia, non-verbal symptoms are detected: neurological disorders, decreased performance, distractibility, hyperactivity, memory loss, etc.

Diagnosis of dysgraphia

To identify the organic causes of dysgraphia, as well as to exclude visual and hearing defects that can lead to writing disorders, consultations of a neurologist (pediatric neurologist), ophthalmologist (children's oculist), otolaryngologist (children's ENT) are necessary. An examination of the level of formation of speech function is carried out by a speech therapist.

Forecast and prevention of dysgraphia

To overcome dysgraphia, the coordinated work of a speech therapist, teacher, neurologist, child and his parents (or an adult patient) is required. Since writing disorders do not disappear on their own in the process of schooling, children with dysgraphia should receive speech therapy help at the school speech center.

Prevention of dysgraphia should begin even before the child begins to learn to read and write. It is necessary to include in preventive work the purposeful development of HMF, which contribute to the normal mastery of the processes of writing and reading, sensory functions, spatial representations, auditory and visual differentiation, constructive praxis, and graphomotor skills. Timely correction of oral speech disorders, overcoming phonetic, phonetic-phonemic and general underdevelopment of speech is important.

A difficult problem is the issue of assessing the progress in the Russian language of children with dysgraphia. During the period of corrective work, it is advisable to carry out a joint check of tests in the Russian language by a teacher and a speech therapist, highlighting specific dysgraphic errors that should not be taken into account when grading.

Mastering the language, accurate, correct oral and written speech is a necessary condition for the formation of a successful personality. This is an important task facing both parents and teachers and speech therapists. It can be solved only in close cooperation. The role of a speech therapist in the implementation of the task is especially important if the child has impaired oral and written speech. Currently, there is a sufficient amount of literature on overcoming violations of sound pronunciation.

Unfortunately, the violation of one structural component of the speech system entails secondary and tertiary disorders. Among them, as a rule, are general underdevelopment of speech, violations of the processes of reading and writing, violations of memory, concentration of attention, verbal-logical thinking, etc. Teaching children to read and write is not an easy task. And not all children are easily and simply given these, according to adults, elementary things. A child can be in many ways smarter and more talented than peers - and make the most incredible, from the point of view of parents or teachers, mistakes when reading and writing. For example, skip letters: hsy - hours; Write all words or prepositions together with words; make two from one word: ok and but - window, etc. Unfortunately, many parents, and sometimes teachers, attribute these mistakes to inattention. At best, the teacher recommends that parents write more dictations with their child. And then comes a difficult period for both parents and children. The child has a negative attitude to writing, to the subject, to school. To avoid this, analyze the child's mistakes. If such "ridiculous" mistakes are not accidental, but are repeated regularly, then the child should seek the advice of a speech therapist. The presence of persistent errors of this type indicates that the child's writing process is partially disturbed -.

Primary school teachers know from their work experience that there can be up to 30% of students in the class with various writing disorders. The process of writing, which is automated in an adult, causes many problems for a child. Writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multi-level process. Speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor analyzers take part in it. A close connection is established between them in the process of writing. Writing is closely related to oral speech, the degree of its development. It is based on the ability to distinguish the sounds of speech, isolate them in the flow of speech and combine, pronounce correctly. To write a word, the child needs:

1. determine its sound structure, sequence and place of each sound;
2. correlate the selected sound with a certain image of the letter;
3. reproduce the letter with the help of hand movements.

To write a sentence, you need to mentally build it, say it, keep the right order of writing, break the sentence into its constituent words, mark the boundaries of each word.

If a child has disorders in at least one of these functions: auditory differentiation of sounds, their correct pronunciation, sound analysis and synthesis, the lexical and grammatical side of speech, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, then there may be a violation of the process of mastering writing - dysgraphia ( from the Greek "grapho" - letter). Dysgraphia is a specific writing disorder that manifests itself in numerous typical persistent errors and is due to the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the process of mastering writing skills. How can you tell if your child needs speech therapy? And if there is no specialist, due to various circumstances, and the teacher, the parent cannot get qualified advice. How to help the child in this situation? To begin with, it is necessary that the primary school teacher (parent) knows which mistakes are specific, dysgraphic. Classification of dysgraphic errors. Errors due to the lack of formation of phonemic processes and auditory perception:

1. missing vowels; all-hanging, room-room, harvest-harvest;
2. omissions of consonants: komata-room, wei-all;
3. omissions of syllables and parts of a word: lines-arrows;
4. vowel substitution: food-food, sesen-pines, light-light;
5. replacement of consonants: tva-two, rocha-grove, crop-harvest, bokazyvaed-shows;
6. permutations of letters and syllables: onco-window;
7. underwriting letters and syllables: through-through, on a branch-on branches, dictation-dictation;
8. building up words with extra letters and syllables: children-children, snow-snow, dictation-dictation;
9. distortion of the word: malni-small, teapot-thickets;
10. continuous spelling of words and their arbitrary division: two or two;
11. inability to determine the boundaries of the sentence in the text, continuous spelling of sentences: Snow covered the whole earth. White carpet. The river froze, the birds were hungry. The snow covered the whole earth with a white carpet. The river is frozen. The birds are hungry.
12. violation of mitigation of consonants: big-big, just-only, rushed off, rushed off, match-ball.

Errors due to the lack of formation of the lexical and grammatical side of speech:

1. violation of the agreement of words: from a spruce branch, from a spruce branch, grass appeared, grass appeared, huge butterflies, huge butterflies;
2. violations of control: in the branch - from the branch; rushed off to the thicket, rushed off into the thicket, a chair sits, sits on a chair;
3. replacement of words by sound similarity;
4. continuous writing of prepositions and separate writing of prefixes: in the grove-in the grove, on the wall-on the wall, on the booze-swollen;
5. omissions in a sentence.

Errors due to the lack of formation of visual recognition, analysis and synthesis, spatial perception:

1. replacement of letters that differ in different positions in space: w-t, q-v, q-b;
2. replacement of letters that differ in a different number of identical elements: i-sh, c-sh;
3. replacement of letters that have additional elements: i-c, w-sh, p-t, x-zh, l-m;
4. mirror spelling of letters
5. omissions, superfluous or incorrectly located elements of letters.

Errors due to the inability of children to learn a large amount of educational material, to remember and use the spelling rules learned orally in writing:

1. unstressed vowel at the root of the word: vada-water, numbers-hours;
2. spelling of voiced and deaf sounds in the middle and at the end of the word: zup-tooth, doroshka-track;
3. designation softening consonants;
4. capital letter at the beginning of a sentence, in proper names.

Recently, another group of errors has been singled out, which they consider necessary to classify as dysgraphic if they are of a stable nature. About children who have this type of error, they say: "As they hear, so they write." The classification of errors is based on the reasons for their occurrence. This will help the teacher (parent) both to identify the causes of difficulties and to correctly determine the type of violations of the writing process and plan work to overcome these violations.

Types of writing disorders

In the specialized literature, there are various classifications of dysgraphia, but they are all based on the causes of the violations. We single out the following types of violations of the writing process:

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia

The cause of this type of violation is the incorrect pronunciation of speech sounds. The child writes the words as he pronounces them. That is, it reflects an owl's defective pronunciation in writing.

Acoustic dysgraphia

The reason for the emergence of this type is a violation of differentiation, recognition of close speech sounds. In writing, this is manifested in the substitutions of letters denoting whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, hard and soft -t, w-sh, o-u e-i).

Dysgraphia due to violations of language analysis and synthesis

The reason for its occurrence is the difficulty in dividing sentences into words, words into syllables, sounds. Typical errors:

1. omissions of consonants;
2. omissions of vowels;
3. permutations of letters;
4. adding letters;
5. omissions, additions, permutations of syllables;
6. confluent spelling of words;
7. separate spelling of words;
8. continuous spelling of prepositions with other words;
9. separate spelling of prefix and root.

Agrammatic dysgraphia

The reason for the occurrence is the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech. In writing, it manifests itself in a change in case endings, incorrect use of prepositions, gender, number, omissions of sentence members, violations of the sequence of words in a sentence, violations of semantic connections in a sentence and between sentences.

Optical dysgraphia

The reason for the occurrence is the lack of formation of visual-spatial functions. It manifests itself in substitutions and distortions in the writing of graphically similar handwritten letters (i-sh, p-t, t-sh, v-d, b-d, l-m, e-s, etc.). Having determined the type of violations of the writing process, you can outline the main directions of work with the child.

Chechurko Nadezhda Mikhailovna, speech therapist

Discussion

And where is the answer to the question "How to help ...?" What is the meaning of this article? The article lists all the possible mistakes that children (and often adults) make when writing. So, what is next? Who is this article for? If for specialists, they already know it. If for parents. then the whole article can be reduced to one phrase: "If your child often makes mistakes when writing, contact a speech therapist." Now only the lazy does not know the term "dysgraphia". So this "lazy" one will not read this article either. It would be useful if they gave at least links to literature, and advised what parents can handle on their own, and how. and with what -only with the help of a specialist. Tired of articles taldychaet known to all truths.

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