The role of managerial thought in the history of social development. General characteristics of the formation and development of managerial thought

Table 1. Comparison of characteristics of Japanese and Western cultures

Topic 3. Managerial thought and practice in the early civilizations of the East
With the creation of the first states, the first layer of professional managers appears - managers or social managers. We have every reason to call the first rulers managers, since their organizational activities were aimed at social organizations, which were also economic organizations. The formation of statehood led to significant changes in management practice. And the first states were created in Mesopotamia. States were complex organizations, which required the development of management practices.
Social division of labor . The original division of labor was based on sex and age and was associated with physiological differences and the ability to perform various types of work. Men were employed in physically hard work, women and adolescents in lighter ones, besides, adolescents performed those activities that required less knowledge and experience, and women performed the duties of maintaining the hearth. caring for young children. In this way, first social division of labor can be called physiological . The second social division of labor is associated with the separation of agriculture from cattle breeding or cattle breeding from agriculture. The third social division of labor is associated with the separation of handicrafts from agriculture. The fourth division of labor is the separation of trade. This social division of labor is no longer connected with direct production, but with movement around it.
In Egypt and Sumer, by the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. crops easily gave, apparently, tenfold, twentyfold and more harvests. And this means that the labor of each person began to produce much more than was necessary for his own subsistence. In addition to the workers, the community was able to feed not only the disabled, not only to create a reliable food reserve, but also to free part of its able-bodied people from agricultural labor. Who at the first opportunity society freed from participation in direct production activities, that is, from working with tools, and during combat operations from direct participation in a fight with the enemy? For the best and greatest development of the productive forces and the cultural and ideological growth of society, it is necessary to have persons freed from productive labor. This does not mean that society consciously frees the best organizers, the most profound thinkers, the most remarkable artists from productive labor - far from it; the surplus product, freeing from productive labor, is seized not by those who are able to use it in the most rational way, but by those who could. Those in whose hands the fist, armed or ideological power take on organizational tasks as well. Most of them exploit the labor of others without benefit to society; but a certain percentage of those who have come forward are people who can really contribute to society in its technical and cultural progress
Managerial view on the problem of social division of labor and surplus product. From the material cited so far it follows that the first people whom society liberated from direct productive labor chiefs who, as commanders in war and as representatives of the community in front of the unknown forces of the world, personified as gods, as well as priests, who represented the community in front of the same gods, with their magical actions provided the patronage of the spirits of nature to the most important matters, and besides, they were the organizers of irrigation, that is, the very basis of material well-being. Thus, the first most important activities freed from productive labor were organizers, administrators, social managers, who in those distant times were called priests and leaders, then kings and pharaohs, and finally, today, presidents of states, speakers of the chambers of parliaments, presidents of campaigns. and managers.

Changing the scale and complexity of management in the state(on the example of Mesopotamia).
The Mesopotamian civilization is of exceptional interest for researchers, as it allows them to see the mechanism of the formation of professional management.
The economic rise of Sumer in the III millennium BC. e. was due to the development of agriculture based on irrigation and the wider use of metal than before. By the end of the period, an extensive irrigation network is being created throughout the entire southern part of the country. This period is characterized by a high level of crafts. In the first place is metallurgical production. Sumerian craftsmen mastered the methods of casting, riveting, and soldering. Various tools and weapons were made from copper, they also learned how to get bronze. There is a separation of trade from crafts. Special merchants stand out from the communities, who are engaged in the exchange of goods and products. Trade is developing with Syria, Transcaucasia, Iran, the islands and the coast of the Persian Gulf. Crafts and trade are concentrated in urban centers, the area of ​​cities is growing, and the number of their inhabitants is increasing.
The economy of Lower Mesopotamia (future Sumer) was divided into two sectors. One included large-family communal farms. In the other - large farms owned by temples and the top officials of the nascent state; these farms during the first centuries of written history gradually left the jurisdiction of communal self-government bodies.
Temple farms were created on lands that were originally allocated, presumably, to serve the cult of the gods, and not the priests personally. The organization of reclamation and irrigation works was entrusted to the priests. This is logical: after all, the task of the priests was to ensure the well-being of the community through cult actions and propitiation of the deities. But at the then level of development of the world outlook or attitude, cult actions should have seemed no less expedient than technical ones, and it was natural to entrust the organization of both to the same persons, the most respected and wise in terms of the time. It is no coincidence that on the most ancient pictorial monuments of Egypt and Sumer, the leader, the priest-predecessor of the king, was often depicted performing an agricultural ritual. The temples were of particular importance for the community because the product created in their farms was originally a public insurance fund, and participation in temple sacrifices created almost the only opportunity for meat nutrition for the population. At the same time, it was easier to use advanced agricultural equipment (ploughs, etc.) on large expanses of temple lands, and here the bulk of the surplus product was created.
Around 3000-2900 BC. temple households are becoming so complex and extensive that it was necessary to record their economic activities, that is, it became necessary to perform what is today called the managerial function of control and accounting. In this regard, writing is born in the temples. The emergence of writing in Mesopotamia was caused by the needs of the management of the economy and the result of the creation of large and complex farms.
The society that developed in the III millennium BC. near the lower reaches of the Euphrates, was divided into estates. The upper class included members of free communities who participated in communal ownership of land and had the rights of communal self-government, and initially the right to elect a leader-ruler. Members of the staff of the temple or government economy belonged to the lower one, who owned land only with the condition to serve and work, or did not own it at all, but received only rations. In addition, there were slaves who, as it were, stood outside the estates, since they could, in principle, be treated like cattle. But, in essence, they also constituted a special, disenfranchised estate. Such a division of society was quite clear and recognized by the ancients themselves. The class division of society reflected the attitude of people towards communities as social and economic organizations. The creation of a class structure is the result of self-organization, that is, the organization of oneself. Its entire managerial meaning lies in the almost automatic, requiring a minimum of special managerial actions to regulate relations both between estates and within them. Thus, the class division of society simplified its management.
The public sector was replenished through the purchase of communal lands, which led to greater independence of the rulers from the communities, the quantitative growth of managerial personnel and an increase in labor productivity. They noted an increasing specialization of labor, an increase in the number of employees and higher labor productivity. All this was the result of effective management, which was carried out by the most qualified managers of that time - the servants of the temples.
One of the attempts known to us to introduce changes in the system of national economic management is the reign of Gudea in the second half of the 22nd century. BC. in Lagash. The whole country was divided into districts, which may or may not coincide with the former nomes. Formerly, they were headed by the Ensi, but now they were simply officials who, at the arbitrariness of the tsarist administration, were transferred from place to place. Only in some places in the border regions were the traditional authorities preserved.
He centralized not only state agriculture, but also cattle breeding. Cattle were grown mainly for sacrifices to the gods, and partly for leather and cheese production. The supply of temples with sacrifices was distributed by districts: each district in turn had to provide temples for a certain period, which was a kind of tax. The organization of a unified royal economy throughout the country required a huge number of administrative personnel: overseers, scribes, detachment leaders, heads of workshops, managers, as well as many skilled artisans.
If we analyze Gudea's reforms from the standpoint of the theory of management of the national economy as an organization, as well as from the standpoint of the organization of society, we can note a number of findings and innovations that are of interest not only purely theoretical, but also practical. First of all, we note that in its activity the priority of the common goal over the goals of the elements that make up the economy and society is clearly traced. This is evident from
- the organization of central craft workshops, which provided both state structures, churches and the workers themselves with their products;
- changes in the traditional administrative structure and the alternate supply of sacrificial animals for the central temples;
- involvement of community members and workers of the royal economy in the state economy, if necessary.
And, finally, one more circumstance should be noted: the bureaucratic power was also extended to the community members. This means that Gudea has practically completed the process of creating the state, as he subdued the power of all the indigenous inhabitants of his state association
An interesting way out of the crisis was demonstrated by the Mesopotamian civilization in the Old Babylonian period of history (20-17th centuries BC), when, as a result of long wars, the foundation of the Mesopotamian civilization - the irrigation system - fell into decay. All this had a painful effect on both state and private farms, but the latter, being primitively organized, were more easily revived.
Because of this, the state has provided an opportunity to restore the economy to enterprising entrepreneurs who are ready to invest their energy in small farms and enterprises. A significant part of state lands, craft workshops of trading enterprises came under the control of private individuals; even the distribution of priestly offices was transformed from a function of state power into an object of trade, private agreements and wills. Many types of taxes were also likely to be farmed out to private individuals. All these measures had a multifaceted impact on the processes and mechanism of the national economy. The turbulent economic life, increased security in a single centralized state attracted many migrants to it from the nearest surrounding world, which ensured an influx of creative energy, material resources and cheap labor. And as a result, in the period under review, there is an expansion of sown areas (development of fallow and virgin lands), the flourishing of such an intensive branch of the economy as horticulture (cultivation of date palm), large yields of cereals (barley) and oilseeds (sesame) crops.
To a large extent, this was achieved by expanding the irrigation network throughout the country. Special officials were obliged to strictly monitor the condition of large and small canals. The Babylonian king considered the construction of a grandiose canal called the Hammurabi River, which was said to be the wealth of the people, bringing an abundance of water to Sumer and Akkad, as an important act of his. Cattle breeding also developed on a large scale, there were herds of large and small cattle, donkeys, for the pasture of which shepherds were hired. Often cattle were hired out to work in the field, threshing floor, and transport heavy loads. The craft is represented by a variety of professions. For the payment of artisans, a fixed fee was established, as well as strict responsibility for the work done.
In ancient Mesopotamia, along with the great organizations (the palace and the temple), there were also professional associations: associations of merchants and artisans, built like guilds, as well as professional groups of soothsayers and highly qualified specialists in the expulsion of evil spirits.
A significant contribution to the development of management practice and theory was made by Egyptians . The ways of the formation of statehood and the formation of a national economy in the Nile Valley differed from those that took place in Mesopotamia. The process of curbing the river, adapting it to the needs of the people was long and, apparently, covered the entire 4th millennium BC. The mighty Nile not only watered, but also fertilized the coastal soil with its silt. But before the river became the basis of agriculture, it was mastered by a man who, through his work, streamlined the huge impulsive and therefore destructive energies of nature. Without appropriate organization, without human labor, without artificial irrigation and drainage, this vast region would remain a lowland among sand and stone.
In a society where the main goal was order, and where there was the highest centralization and total control, as well as a high degree of regulation of public life, and, accordingly, there was a huge administrative apparatus. The Egyptians developed extensive irrigation projects to complement the floods of the Nile, and their engineering skills in pyramids and canals far exceeded anything the Greeks and Romans had done before.
In the multi-stage pyramid of social and economic management of Egypt, one should especially highlight the most numerous layer of professional managers - scribes, who, on behalf of the pharaoh, carefully monitored the movement of all material values, the formation and expenditure of the state budget, periodically conducted population censuses, redistributed ordinary people by professions. Egyptian management, already at an early stage of its development, is characterized by specialization both in types of work and in certain areas, which today we call management functions. A numerous staff of various kinds of employees: scribes, overseers, accountants, keepers of documents, managers, headed by a house manager, who carried out general management of all economic life, organized and controlled the work of numerous workers. This was the beginning of the birth of modern business functions.
The chief manager on whom the fate of the entire civilization depended was the pharaoh, who received a good professional managerial education from an early age in the family. There are cases when, at the age of ten, they took upon themselves the burden of governing the country. The pharaoh delegated some of his powers to his first assistant - chati. A complex bureaucratic system was created under the Chati: to measure the level of the river, on which the entire economy depended, to predict the grain harvest and income, to allocate these incomes to various divisions of the state, to monitor all industry and trade. Some fairly successful methods (for the time) were applied here: management by forecasting, work planning, division of work between different people and departments, education of a professional administrator for coordination and control. Considerable importance was attached to the motivation of employees.
A characteristic form of labor organization in field farming in the period of the Old Kingdom was work teams. These workers were deprived of ownership of tools and means of production. They received allowances from the noble warehouses and industries. Workers were charged with the obligation to perform a certain lesson on the economy to which they were subordinate; what was produced in excess of the lesson could go to their benefit with the right to dispose of this share of the product.
Around the same period as in Egypt, the basic functions and principles of management were understood in ancient China . Along with the recognition of the need for planning, organization, command and control, the Chinese have identified the principles of specialization, decentralization and multiple approaches to solving identical problems. Seeing in management one of the main tools for influencing all aspects of public life and changing it in the required direction, the Chinese created an academy, whose graduates, as a rule, became managers. Thus, they began the specialized training of social and economic managers two millennia before the advent of modern management.
Chinese civilization and its system of government is characterized by exceptional pragmatism. Chinese philosophy was born in the middle of the first millennium BC in an effort to answer the vital question of the organization of society. In discussing the problems of managing society, such philosophical schools as Legalism, Modism, Taoism, and Confucianism were born. Chinese pragmatism was also reflected in the fact that philosophers, as advisers to rulers, participated in a practical, experimental search for the best management systems. It is also extremely important that the ancient thinkers of China from the very beginning proposed a multiple approach to solving the problem. A wide discussion on the problems of social management, which has been going on in China for several centuries, has greatly influenced contemporary Chinese society, as well as its reformation in various periods up to the present day.
At the same time, a system of ranks was introduced, which were assigned not on the basis of hereditary law, but for military merit. Later, the acquisition of ranks for money was allowed. Let's pay attention to this decision, which is related to such today's phenomenon as bribery. Shang Yang, proceeding from the recognition of the evil nature of man, found an extraordinary way to legally solve the problem and showed that a legal solution, unlike an illegal one, can be beneficial to society.
After 4 centuries, in the Han era, there were a total of 20 ranks of nobility. There are 20 ranks of civil servants in the US today.
A significant contribution to the development of the practice and theory of management was made by another eastern civilization - indian . It is characterized by the relationship between the ideological life of society and economic life, active state regulation, control over economic life, multilateral state support for new economic entities. The Indians created the first scientific treatise and textbook known to us on the organization of the national economy, entrepreneurship and management. The Indians have enriched world practice with discoveries in working with information, shaping public opinion for effective project management, creating a staff apparatus, and irrational decision-making methods.
A distinctive feature of Indian society since the late Vedic time is a peculiar, unparalleled system of varnas in the world, which then grew into a caste system. To one degree or another, elements of caste were observed among many peoples and in different historical eras. But nowhere did the caste system acquire such a complete form and last so long.
In principle, each system strives to maintain a certain stability in the structure and mechanism of control. This allows you to save significant resources due to a certain self-organization. Innovations, on the other hand, require huge expenditures of material, human and, especially, qualified management personnel. This explains the long-term viability of the class division of society.. In this regard, the Indian civilization, the Indian management school, has created a caste system that is unique in its viability, which has not only its exceptional extension in time, but also its stability in space. If the estates allowed a certain exchange of their constituent elements, then the castes excluded such. An unprecedented case in the history of management that contradicts one of the basic laws of the development of an organization - self-organization, the degree of which is determined by the degree of openness to the outside world, to external influences. The castes, like the varnas that preceded them, were among the most closed organizations. Suffice it to recall that one cannot become a member of a caste except by birth.
State regulation of economic life took place in many states and civilizations, but it was carried out most vividly and consistently in India. The greatest contribution to the development of agriculture was made by the construction of irrigation facilities by the state and the provision of farmers with the necessary amount of water. The water tax was equal to the fifth, fourth and even the third part of the entire crop, which was collected from the irrigated plot. The state should also be given credit for the construction of walled cities, where not only priests, nobility and warriors settled, but also artisans, merchants, etc.
Along with regulation, the Indian state assisted individual citizens, not only Vaishya peasants, but also Shudras in organizing private farms. To stimulate the cultivation of wild lands, farmers were temporarily exempted from paying taxes, and also received other benefits, including the issuance of cattle, seeds and money to them. It was believed that all this should pay off in the future, when the settlers get stronger and get on their feet.
In the new settlements, land plots were granted to priests and village officials, and these plots could not be sold, mortgaged, or inherited. Even taxpaying peasants could not transfer their land to those from whom taxes were not collected. If the farmer could not cope with the processing of the plot allocated to him, the plot was transferred to another. It can be assumed that during the period under review, a significant part of the lands of the Ganges basin was included in the production. Moreover, colonization could also affect the areas adjacent to it.
Indian civilization also provides the first known management textbook, a book found at the beginning of the 20th century called Arthashastra , which means in translation the doctrine of the economy and public administration. It is a systematic presentation of the basic principles and methods of management, job descriptions of officials who organized and controlled the activities of the main industries and enterprises. Therefore, it can be called the first management textbook. Arthashastra is a large work, consisting of 15 departments, or books. Each department in turn has sections and chapters.
The first section of the monument begins with an introductory chapter, which gives an exposition of the rules of the king's behavior, as well as the appointment and testing of ministers and the chief adviser, secret agents, monitoring hostile and friendly parties, as well as the king's sons, etc.
The second section deals with such issues as the settlement and organization of the area, the use of land unsuitable for cultivation, the construction of a fortress, the establishment of income by the collector of income, the maintenance of accounts in the accounting department, the drafting of decrees, the management of mines and workshops, the establishment of weights and measures, the duties of the chief tax collector, the duties of the mayor and the duties of numerous overseers.
The third department is the judiciary. In essence, this department is the state regulation of economic activity and the protection of its participants.
The fourth section - on the removal of obstacles to public order - is devoted to issues of criminal law, as well as measures to prevent natural disasters and provide assistance to victims from the state.
The fifth section is about the use of sophisticated means of the state. The author pays much attention to the main element connecting the national economy - the collection of taxes and the search for other ways to replenish the treasury of the sovereign, who is in a difficult situation, that is, in emergency circumstances.
The sixth section is devoted to the foundations of the state, which are the sovereign, minister, countryside, fortified cities, treasury, army and allies. The author gives ideal, desirable states and qualities of some elements.
The seventh department and most of the rest are devoted mainly to foreign policy issues, peaceful and military methods of its implementation, internal and external security problems, and secret methods of dealing with opponents.
Topic 4. Management ideas and practice in European civilization (pre-industrial period)
GREECE . From the very beginning of its development, European civilization has shown a number of distinctive features in the management of the economic and social life of society. The ancient period of European culture is interesting not only as our past, but also as the formation of many of the principles, methods and traditions that exist today in the field of management.
In ancient Greece, two and a half thousand years ago, the formation of a modern European civilization with a market economy, a high culture of democratic governance and the free development of the individual begins. The main economic element of Greek society was the small proprietor.
Ancient Greece was characterized by decentralization of society and economy. It manifested itself, first of all, in the many Greek states-polises themselves, of which there were more than 200 on a small peninsula and adjacent islands.
The Greek policies differed from each other in a number of factors, the greatest extremes of which were the democratic and oligarchic forms of organization, which received a classical reflection, respectively, in Athens and Sparta. In both polises there is a fairly large number of non-civilians, who were in varying degrees of dependence on the polis civil collective, but in each of them their own systems of exploitation of slaves were established.
In the VIII-VII centuries. BC e. Athens became a democratic state. In 621 BC Athens was the first to record existing laws. The codification can be seen as a serious concession of the Eupatrides to the demos, who suffered greatly from the arbitrariness of the archons, who judged according to unwritten customary law. A further change in the mechanism of governance of Athenian society is associated with the name of Solon, whom ancient historiography portrays as an ideal legislator who stood above classes and estates and had the goal of reconciling them.
Based on the popular assembly, Solon carried out a series of economic and political reforms. The most important economic reform was the abolition of debts, which freed a mass of debtor slaves and eased the plight of the peasantry. It was forbidden to guarantee a debt by the person of the debtor and sell him into slavery for debts. Further, Solon introduced a law on the freedom of wills, which approved private property and allowed the division of ancestral possessions, while earlier the land was inherited by the genus and was not subject to alienation. As a result of Solon's reforms, a layer of small and medium-sized free landowners appeared in Attica - an integral part of any city-state of antiquity, its social basis.
Among the economic measures carried out by Solon, one should note a law that prohibited the export of bread from Attica and encouraged the export of olive oil. In the language of today, this means the intensification of economic management, a more rational use of resources. Encouraging the cultivation of intensive crops - olives, grapes, etc. - Solon issued laws regulating the planting of trees, irrigation, rules on the joint use of wells that previously belonged to individual clans or families, etc. The cultivation of intensive crops was available not only to large landowners, but also to the middle strata of the demos, in whose interests these laws were carried out. The activities of Solon contributed to the transformation of Attica from a country of arable farming into a country in whose economy the main place was occupied by highly intensive horticultural crops, which produced significant marketable products.
In order to encourage and develop trade and handicraft production, Solon introduced a law according to which a son could refuse to help an elderly father if he did not teach him the craft. Under Solon in Athens, the unification of units of measures and weights was carried out.
Thus, in contrast to the East, the small private sector was the main sector here. The economic independence of a small family, a separate full-fledged individual, that is, the democratization of economic life and the presence of a wide layer of citizens - owners (in accordance with the current terminology - the middle class) should inevitably result in the democratization of the entire social system. The administration of the policy was formed exclusively through elections with the participation of all citizens.
To create a real opportunity to participate in public institutions and overcome indifference to public affairs, Pericles introduced a fee for the administration of juror duties in courts, in meetings. In 451, Pericles renewed the old law, which limited the right of citizenship to the condition of obligatory descent from both parents of Athenian citizens. The law said that only people descended from both Athenians could be Athenians. The law caused a lot of misunderstandings and lawsuits and all kinds of deceptions and frauds. About 5,000 people caught cheating were sold into slavery. Full-fledged citizens turned out to be only a little more than 14 thousand. (Aristotle mentions the figure of 20 thousand, determining the number of Athenian citizen-officials who were supported largely thanks to the contributions of members of the maritime union.)
Athenian democracy has always been a minority democracy. Pericles is also credited with the introduction of theatrical money, issued to citizens for the purchase of a stamp or a ticket for theatrical performances, which was a natural continuation and development of payments and for the performance of public duties, especially for military service, established during the Greco-Persian wars. A wealthy part of the citizens carried all sorts of public duties in the form of equipping military courts, arranging spectacles, paying choirs and exercising government posts associated with large expenses. If we compare the number of citizens with the number of positions in Athens, we can assume that almost all city citizens and a significant part of rural residents participated in the direct administration of the state. Another comparison is also interesting: 14 thousand citizens and 230 thousand inhabitants of Athens.
The authorities of the Greek city-states, as a rule, intervened in local economic life, especially taking care of the uninterrupted supply of the market with bread. There was a fight against speculation. The order and trade in the markets in Athens were observed by specially elected overseers, foreign trade - by trustees of the trading port chosen for this purpose.
For Attica and Athens, the period of the fiftieth anniversary was characterized by the coexistence of slave and free labor in the craft. The workshops of artisans who worked personally or with the help of one or two slaves were small enterprises that existed in the presence of large and even very large workshops - a kind of slave manufactories of antiquity.
But on the whole, under Pericles, free labor was maintained by purely artificial measures and the norm for the use of slave labor was established: the number of slaves working on large public buildings was reduced to about a quarter of the total number of workers.
Greek history helps to understand many of the theoretical provisions and practice of managing interstate economic relations. According to the theory of development of the national economy, at a certain stage of its development it reaches an optimal state. In the language of management, the optimal state is the state of the greatest efficiency of the national economy. The optimal state is the state of balance and stability (relative). The national economy in its optimal state has exceptionally powerful energy, that is, the ability to transform the external environment, which for it is the whole life of this state and other national economies surrounding it. This transformative action is manifested through expansion. The latter can appear in various forms.
The Greek transformative power in one case was realized as a Greek peaceful colonization. Among its causes, one should note the emergence of relative overpopulation due to the insufficient development of productive forces, the desire of merchants to gain a foothold on the routes to foreign countries and settle there, as well as the political struggle in the metropolises, often accompanied by wild terror. Greek colonization spread to various territories of the Mediterranean and Black Sea region.
The colonies quickly became an independent policy. Although the colonies and mother countries usually did not form unions and did not have common citizenship, the inhabitants of the metropolis who arrived in the colony became its citizens, and the colonists who returned to the old home easily restored their citizenship. Various regions, districts and cities of Hellas took part in the colonization: both more backward and more developed. In accordance with this, either the agrarian or the trade and handicraft aspect prevailed in the colonial expansion. The relationship between the Greek colonists and the local barbarian population developed differently. But they have always influenced each other. Hellenic influence undoubtedly accelerated the economic, social and cultural development of the barbarians.
The impact of colonization on the metropolis is also significant. From the peripheral regions go to Greece gold, silver, tin, foodstuffs (fish, bread), slaves. The value of the latter type of goods is growing more and more. This accelerated the social processes that took place in the cities of the Balkan, island, Asia Minor Greece, and influenced the political struggle.
Another important period of influence on the outside world, including the mass emigration of Greeks, mass colonization, is the creation of a world power by Alexander the Great. Today, Hellenism is viewed by many historians as a Greek gift to a temporarily annexed world. On the ruins of the power of Alexander the Great, states arose that are commonly called Hellenistic states. In the history of the Mediterranean peoples, the Hellenistic states represent a progressive stage of social development. In relation to the political system, the Hellenistic societies represent a combination of the features of the classical policy with the ancient Eastern monarchy. Management in the Hellenistic kingdoms, in comparison with the policy, is built on the principles of greater centralism.
Politicians, philosophers and other ideologists of Greek society were looking for a way out of the social and political impasse in which the Greek slave-owning classical policies found themselves. Various ways were proposed for this: Plato and Aristotle were engaged in the theoretical development of the best social and state structure, but no matter how different their constructions were, they could not go beyond the concept of the state as a policy.
Socrates discovered that managerial ability can be transferred from public to private affairs. In his early study on the universalization of management, Socrates observed that management in private affairs differs from public affairs only in magnitude; both cases deal with the management of people and if someone could not manage his private affairs, he certainly cannot manage the public. However, the Greeks may have deviated too much from Socrates' rules of universality. Military and municipal leaders changed regularly, creating chaos in government affairs and causing problems during times of threat from the better organized, more professional armies of Sparta and Macedonia.
In his work Politics, Aristotle wrote. He who has never learned to obey cannot lead. In his discussion of the management of the household, he, like Socrates, spoke of the similarity between the art of government and the household. Both are connected with the management of property, slaves and free citizens with only one difference in the size of the total transactions.
However, Greek economic philosophy was largely anti-business, and trade and commerce were considered beneath the dignity of the Greek man. Works, being ignoble for the Greek aristocrat and philosopher, must be performed by slaves and disrespectful citizens. Workers and merchants were deprived of their citizenship in the Greek democracy, because of the low respect for workers and merchants. But unlike the Jewish tradition, the Greeks were actively engaged in financial and credit activities. Attica and Athens became the most important trade and craft center not only in Balkan Greece, but throughout the ancient Greek world. The most common financial and usurious operation in the coastal cities of Greece were maritime loans, i.e. the return of money against the security of goods or at high (marine) interest to ship owners (18% per annum in those days was not considered too high a norm). This main operation was joined by a mass of various small transactions and machinations. The Greeks were not very law-abiding citizens: deceit, forgery, slander and a mass of all kinds of slander and denunciations form the content of endless small and large judicial litigations, which Greek literature of the 4th century is so rich in. From the speeches of the speakers it is clear that in addition to giving money at sea interest, they also speculated on the exchange rate, which, with the multitude of coins in circulation, was a very profitable occupation. The development of monetary transactions led to the expansion of the activities of change shops (meals), which turned into a kind of banking offices.
Despite the anti-trade philosophy, the Greek era illustrates the first sprouts of democracy, the advent of decentralized government, the first attempts to consolidate the freedom of the individual, the beginning of the scientific method of solving problems, and the early, although superficial, view that the management of various organizations requires the same managerial skills.
ROME . The Romans developed a quasi-factory system to produce armaments for the legions, pottery for the world market, and later textiles for export. The famous Roman road system was built to speed up the movement of troops to conquer the colonies. The Romans inherited the Greeks' disregard for trade and introduced commercialism to Greek and Eastern freed slaves. Growing foreign trade required commercial standardization, so the state developed a system of measures, weights, and money. The first prototype of a corporate organization appeared in the form of joint stock companies that sold shares in order to fulfill government contracts, to support the war effort. A highly specialized labor force, with a few exceptions, dominated the small shops as independent artisans selling products for the market rather than for the individual buyer. Free workers formed guilds (colleges), but they existed for social purposes and shared profits, such as paying funeral expenses, rather than setting wage levels, hours, and working conditions. The state regulated every aspect of Roman economic life: levying tariffs on trade, imposing fines on monopolists, regulating guilds, and using their income to fight numerous wars. Large organizations could not exist, because the state prohibited joint stock companies for any purpose other than to fulfill government contracts.
The Romans were ingenious in organizing the system, the military autocracy held the empire in an iron fist. Behind the authoritarian organizational structure were two fundamental concepts - discipline and functionality. The latter carried out the division of work between various military and government agencies, the former formed a strict framework and hierarchy of power to ensure the performance of functions.
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Management as a sphere of human activity appeared a long time ago. At all times, the joint work of large or small groups of people, one way or another, required management, namely: planning, distribution of duties between employees, explaining to each performer his benefits or the need to participate in a common cause, control over work by seniors, etc. .

It is believed that it was the ancient Greek thinker Socrates (c. 469 BC - 399 BC) who first expressed the opinion that the art of management must be taught. He considered erroneous the then widespread opinion that the greatest of knowledge - the art of government - is given to a person by itself. In addition, he argued that gifted people who have the ability to manage are especially in need of training in the art of government, because it is they who are most often characterized by indomitability and unbridledness, and without knowledge these people can harm the state. If they are taught the art of government, they will be of inestimable benefit to the state.

According to Socrates, a good ruler is a wise ruler who has the knowledge of good and evil and relies on this knowledge in his activities. The highest virtue is political virtue, which includes the art of government. The basis of the well-being of the state lies in the inviolability of laws, in the obedience of citizens and rulers to these laws. Socrates formulated the idea of ​​the universal nature of government: to manage a house and manage a state, one and the same knowledge of a single virtue is necessary. “If you don’t know how to build one house, how can you take on the construction of ten thousand? With the appropriate knowledge of the subject and the ability to manage people, a person will be able to equally successfully lead both the house and the army, and the state. For all their specificity, this knowledge and skills are parts of a single virtue and they should not be confused with the occupations of an artisan, shoemaker, physician, musician, since the skills and mastery of the latter do not belong to the sphere of virtue at all. Thus, Socrates was the first to raise the question of the division of managerial and executive labor.

The managerial ideas of Socrates were further developed in the works of Plato (427 - 348 BC) and Aristotle (384 - 322 BC). Plato, a student of Socrates, was the first to express ideas about the need for a horizontal division of labor: “a person cannot work simultaneously on stone, iron, and wood, since there is no way to succeed everywhere. Everyone should do what they can do best. In the state, people depend on each other, and everyone does his job for the benefit of other people.

Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato, did not agree with his teacher on many issues, including the principles of an ideal state system. The famous saying of the philosopher: "Plato is my friend, but the truth is dearer" - reflects his views, independent of the ideas of the mentor. Aristotle believed that the basis of the state should be private property, since it is rooted in human nature. The philosopher was against the socialization of property in the state. He reflected his views on the state structure in the works “State” and “Athenian Politia”.

Thus, the management of the joint activities of people has existed almost since the emergence of human society. It can be argued that throughout the history of mankind, knowledge about management has also developed, principles, methods, methods of managing people, enterprises and entire countries have been formed.

In the classic concepts of "scientific management" by F. Taylor and "rational bureaucracy" by M. Weber, management has traditionally been viewed as the impact of one system on another to purposefully change the latter. A similar approach, later called technocratic, was also observed in the works of Russian scientists of the early 20th century. (A. Gastev, E. Rozmirovich, P. Kerzhentsev), who assumed that the management mechanism would reduce all management functions to the simplest actions: "the people management system will be replaced by the things management system." Like foreign scientists, in Russia for a long time the idea of ​​an optimal management model was associated with subject-object relations. In this case, the object was considered everything that is subject to the control action, and the subject - that which carries out such an action. The object and subject of management, according to this model, form a system of social management, and the links between them represent the structure of the management system. The specificity of the subject of management is determined by its influence directed at the object, and consists in coordinating and harmonizing the interests of individual communities in the process of exercising their vital activity. However, according to the observations of researchers, the inability of the subject of management to act in the interests of the object often led to the fact that the latter began to function for the sake of its own interests, which became an end in itself; at the same time, society turned into a means of their implementation. In the development of the theory and practice of social management, there are several historical periods corresponding to the so-called managerial revolutions. The first administrative revolution was associated with the emergence of the power of the priests and the emergence of writing as a result of business communication. The second revolution is associated with the name of the Babylonian king Hammurabi and is an example of a secular aristocratic style of government. The third revolution dates back to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar 2 and is a combination of state planned methods of regulation with production activities. The fourth revolution is associated with the birth of capitalism and the beginning of the industrial progress of European civilization. Here for the first time they started talking about the importance and necessity of managerial functions. During this period, A. Smith made a great contribution to the development of public administration. He made an analysis of various forms of division of labor, gave a description of the duties of the sovereign and the state. R. Owen also had a great influence on this science. He paid much attention to the humanization of production management and recognized the need for training, as well as the need to improve the working and living conditions of workers. Ch. Babbagiu developed the project of the "analytical engine", with the help of which even then management decisions were made more quickly. The first studies in the field of management were carried out by the classical school. Representatives of this direction were mainly concerned about the issue of production efficiency. They focused their activities on the adaptation of workers to work. The first who began to consider management as a science was F. Teyler. He led the scientific management movement and was interested not in the efficiency of the individual, but in the performance of the organization. The main merit of F. Theiler was that he "... developed the methodological foundations of labor rationing, standardized work operations, put into practice scientific approaches to the selection, placement and stimulation of workers' labor." Scientists F. and L. Gilbert "conducted research in the field of labor movements, improved timing techniques, and also developed scientific principles for organizing the workplace." One of the varieties of the classical school is the administrative school. Here, issues related to the role and function of management were studied. It was assumed that if you determine the essence of the manager's work, then you can identify the most effective management methods. One of the first to develop this idea was A. Fayol. He singled out 5 main functions in the management process: planning, organization, selection and placement of personnel, leadership (motivation) and control.

The representative of the administrative school, M. Blumfield, developed the concept of labor force management. Another representative of this school, M. Weber, proposed the concept of a rational bureaucracy. The main feature of the classical school was the idea that there is only one way to achieve production efficiency. Therefore, their goal was to discover this perfect method. A clear advance in the field of management was made by the school of human relations. It was based on the achievements of psychology and sociology. This school paid special attention to the individual. E. Mayo is considered to be the founder of this school. He found that the worker group is a social system that has its own systems of control. In a certain way, acting on this system, it is possible to improve the results of labor. Behavioral scientists have made a great contribution to the development of the school of human relations. Of the latter, A. Maslow, who developed the hierarchical theory of needs, and D. McGregor, who developed the theory of employee characteristics, can be distinguished. Later, a quantitative or managerial school appeared. The emergence of this school is associated with the use of mathematics and computers in management. Its representatives express the management process mathematically. And finally, the fifth managerial revolution is associated with the arrival of a new managerial force - professional managers. Management "... is associated with the effectiveness of managerial influences in the social sphere and their feedback on market structures, the economy, finance, management personnel, etc." In Russia, the beginning of the development of management science was laid in the 17th century within the framework of the theory of public administration. An important role in this was played by A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin. Further, new transformations in the Russian theory of management are connected with the reforms of Peter the Great to improve the management of the economy. At the beginning of the 19th century, M.M. Speransky played a special role in the development of management. He proposed to divide the system of power into 3 parts: legislative, executive, judicial. After the end of the civil war, a number of research organizations were created for the broad study and implementation of the scientific organization of labor and management. The activities of institutes and laboratories were subordinated to the creation of systematized concepts in the field of labor organization and management. In the 1920s, a council of the NOT was created, headed by People's Commissar V.V. Kuibyshev. A period of rapid development of the domestic theory of management began. Around such scientists as A. K. Gastev, P.M. Kerzhentsev, N.A. Vitke, E.F. Rozmirovich, I.M. Burdyansky began to form the first school of management. In the mid-1930s, research in the field of management was interrupted. They resumed only in the 60s on a new basis. There are three areas in which management studies were carried out: 1) the general theory of social management; 2) public administration; 3) production management. However, only the third direction can be considered formed.

At present, the science of social management as an independent scientific direction and academic discipline is not fully formed. And therefore, it still does not give the result that is obtained from its effective use in Western countries.

Management existed and exists where people worked in groups. Considering the development of management theory and practice, several historical periods can be distinguished:

1) ancient period;

2) industrial period;

3) systematization period;

4) information period.

The history of world social governance includes several managerial revolutions that mark turning points in the theory and practice of management:

1) the first administrative revolution led to the emergence of the power of the priests and the birth of writing;

2) the second administrative revolution led to the establishment of a purely secular aristocratic government and is associated mainly with the name of the Babylonian king Hammurabi;

3) thanks to the third revolution in management, state planned methods of regulation were combined with production;

4) the fourth revolution, often called the industrial revolution, coincided in time with the birth of capitalism and the beginning of industrial progress;

5) the fifth managerial revolution was marked by the advent of a new social force - professional managers, a class of managers that became dominant in the field of material production management and spiritual life.

The listed managerial revolutions correspond to the main historical milestones of the change of social classes: the power of the priests was replaced by the power of the aristocracy (mainly military), the power of the military and civil aristocracy was replaced by representatives of the enterprising bourgeoisie, who were replaced in the historical arena by hired workers.

Ancient period of development management began from 9 - 7 millennia BC. and continued until the beginning of the 18th century. The transition from an appropriating economy to a producing economy became the starting point in the emergence of management. In ancient Egypt, a wealth of experience in managing the state economy was accumulated, a state administrative staff developed by those standards and a service administrative apparatus was formed.

AT industrial period the development of ideas about public administration is associated with the name of A. Smith, who was a specialist in the field of administration, since he characterized the duties of the sovereign and made an analysis of various forms of division of labor. The teachings of R. Owen had a significant impact on the formation of many modern trends and schools of management. Especially relevant is Owen's idea of ​​humanizing production management.

Systematization period theory and practice of management fell on 1856 - 1960s. At this time, new directions, schools, trends are being formed, the scientific apparatus is being improved. What is now called management originated during the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. The emergence of factories meant that large groups of people had to be employed, which in turn meant that individual owners could not oversee the activities of all the workers. Persons who represented the interests of the owner in the workplace began to emerge from among the best workers - managers.

In the 60s. 20th century starts information period theory and practice of management, which is based on the use of mathematical apparatus, with the help of which the integration of mathematical analysis and subjective decisions of managers is achieved. In the modern world, mathematical methods are used in all areas of management science.

© Faculty of Economics, Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, 2005

© Design. INFRA-M, 2005

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250th Anniversary of the Moscow State University. M.B. Lomonosov is dedicated

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Dear reader!

This textbook is published as part of the series “Textbooks of the Faculty of Economics of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov”, crowning the long-term efforts of the faculty staff to update the content and structure of university economic education.

The transition of the country to the market required a revision of the profession of an economist, the development and application of previously unclaimed knowledge, known, perhaps, only to a limited circle of critics of "bourgeois" economic thought.

To enrich the content of economic education by including new economic disciplines and updating a number of traditional ones, it was necessary to retrain teachers and solve the problem of textbooks. The first attempts to include new disciplines in the curricula showed the impossibility of this within one stage, therefore, updating the content, we had to simultaneously solve the problem of transferring education to a two-stage system.

The past 10 plus years are the years of mastering the technology of two-stage education "bachelor - master", which the faculty carries out without parallel training of specialists. The accession of the country to the Bologna process made this transition irreversible.

All these years, the retraining of the teaching staff was carried out: thanks to the programs of international cooperation, about 160 teachers of the faculty, on average, trained at the best foreign universities at least twice.

As for textbooks, the first years had to use the best foreign textbooks, many of which were translated by teachers into Russian. Now it's time to prepare high-quality domestic textbooks. The teaching corps has the opportunity to create original textbooks and teaching aids, prepared taking into account teaching experience and differentiated by the level of training of students (textbooks for bachelor's programs and textbooks for master's programs).

The participation of the faculty in the Innovation Project of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, financed by the World Bank, also contributed to the solution of this problem. The National Training Fund became the direct executor of the project.

Thanks to this project, the faculty implemented its project “Improving higher economic education at Moscow State University” for three years, as a result of which the teachers of the economic faculty prepared 74 textbooks and teaching aids in the main disciplines that form the professions of economists and managers.

We believe that these textbooks fully reflect the most important achievements of university economic thought, which are necessary for the full-fledged training of economists and top managers.

Now more than 3,000 students are studying at the Faculty of Economics of Moscow State University, the faculty has the largest master's program in economics in the country, the largest number of graduate students in economic specialties. The educational "field" includes more than 300 general disciplines and special courses. Part of the general courses is presented in this series of textbooks.

The faculty staff will gratefully accept comments and suggestions regarding the improvement of the proposed series of textbooks.

V.P. Kolesov

Dean of the Faculty of Economics, Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov, Professor, Doctor of Economics

Foreword

Dedicated to parents, wife and children

This textbook will focus on the centuries-old world history of managerial thought, the origins of which are found in materials dating back to the 4th millennium BC. e. Turning to the history of real management and ideas about management is every time a test of one's own hypotheses and ideas, the search for analogues of decisions, the evaluation of decisions made. In today's booming business environment, in almost every business magazine you can find quotes from historical manuscripts of ancient thinkers, statements by state leaders and military commanders of the past about managing people, about relationships with subordinates, about management strategy and tactics, about power, conflicts and leadership, about control and accounting in management and about many other still topical management problems.

The question is: “Why leaf through the chronicle of past knowledge? Why should we look to the past in order to prepare for the future?” The answer is quite simple: “Yes, because there is nowhere else to look!”

At the same time, in the society of managers, the study of historical works on management has always been considered an exercise in excess. In an era of almost turbulent changes in the external environment and abrupt changes in one's own organizations, it is very difficult to force oneself to look for answers or advice in the works of ancient thinkers and even their compatriots who lived 100-200 years ago. As a result, modern managers and even management theorists began to gradually forget F. Taylor's ideas about the study of work movements - and today we present the idea of ​​​​the rational distribution of manager's time as a discovery of science; they began to forget the law of A. Fayol about the functions of management - and today we are struggling to explain the stability of the functional organizational structures of management; A. Bogdanov’s general organizational science (tectology) was little promoted – and today we admire the naive arguments about synergistic effects and defects during mergers and acquisitions of corporations, etc., etc.

These examples refer to the history of management ideas, but there are no fewer facts in the history of real management that could be useful lessons for those who are ready to learn from it. The modern educated manager cannot afford to disregard wise advice, regardless of the time of origin of the source of this advice - be it Sun Tzu's advice on strategic management, expressed in the 5th century BC. e., either the recommendations of the ancient Romans on agricultural management, or the SWOT analysis methodology developed by management consultants in the 70s of the XX century.

In this textbook we will talk about the history of the ideas of managing any social object. The object of management will be understood as an organization as a set of two or more people united by common goals, using various kinds of resources, transforming resources into products (goods or services) and exchanging (realizing) products for the necessary resources to maintain its existence and development. Management of the organization will be understood as a conscious purposeful impact on the organization.

Examples organizations are state-owned enterprises, public associations, private companies of various sizes, various regional and sectoral affiliations, family, state, society as a whole. As organization goals Consideration is given to ensuring the welfare and security of members of the organization, rational housekeeping, meeting the needs of members of the organization, maximizing profits, increasing the value of the company, penetrating into new markets, meeting the needs of customers. Examples organization resources- finance, people, raw materials, land, semi-finished products, components, scientific developments, information, time.

Based on the definition of an organization, we can hypothesize that managing an organization is one of the oldest types of human activity, since from the moment two people appeared on Earth, there was a need for a purposeful impact of one of them on the other. If this is so, then, obviously, over the entire period of its existence, mankind has accumulated both vast practical experience and many management ideas. Today it is necessary to search for these ideas, identify, collect, store, process, analyze, synthesize, systematize and, if possible, apply them in solving modern management problems. After reviewing the material of the textbook, the reader will be convinced that for many millennia the problem of effective and rational management of an organization has been one of the vital and worried both the minds of practitioners - business executives, statesmen, production organizers, military commanders, entrepreneurs, and scientists - philosophers, jurists , political scientists, sociologists, psychologists, economists, managers, historians, etc.

Management problems have been and remain in the focus of attention of business circles, political elites, the public, educators, and management consultants. Representatives of these communities were often the authors and implementers of management ideas. The main motives for the search, formation and development of management ideas have always been to ensure the well-being, well-being and safety of members of a social organization (families, enterprises, states, societies), and hence the increase in the effectiveness of managerial decisions, continuous improvement of organization management, increase in efficiency, life of organizations. It is this process of emergence, formation and development of managerial ideas over a long time interval in various regions of the world that this textbook is devoted to.

Of course, based on the principle “one cannot grasp the immensity”, far from all even the already known ideas and concepts of management are included in the textbook, and the works of not all scientists are characterized. Nevertheless, along with well-known authors and typical, most popular concepts, the textbook also presents little-known authors and their developments in management problems.

This textbook attempts to analyze and synthesize theoretical and applied developments on the management of various organizations in different specific historical eras. The authors of the developments were representatives of the civilizations of the Ancient East, China, India, Greece and Rome, the feudal states of the Middle Ages, the first capitalist states, the modern states of Germany, England, Austria, the USA, Russia, etc. Covering a long historical period (4th millennium BC er - the beginning of the 21st century) and being limited by the volume of the textbook, the author did not always compare the material presented or a comparative analysis of the considered points of view on management and referred the reader to the relevant literature or to carry out independent scientific research and projects on the proposed topic (see. Attachment 1.).

The main difference between this textbook and published works on the history of management thought is that it presents not only systematized views on management, but also some interesting "elemental" ideas and management concepts that have been applied in real practice. Thus, the textbook presents not only and even not so much the history of management science as the history of management ideas, views, theories that constantly arose in order to solve real management problems of a certain class. That is why the beginning of the presentation dates back to the most ancient available textbook written sources of human thought, where the first thoughts about managing an economy or organizations were found. And for the same reason, the textbook presents ideas and concepts related to individual elements, characteristics and aspects of the management system (methods, functions, goals, personnel, motivation, organizational management structures, decision-making processes, power, leadership, conflicts, strategic management, organizational development, organizational changes, etc.). And finally, to a greater extent than in similar textbooks published so far, domestic management thought is presented, which has not been adequately reflected in either Western or domestic literature.

Logic and structure of the textbook. The extensive material on the history of managerial thought (HIM) can be presented in different ways, depending on the chosen logic. In turn, the choice of presentation logic is determined primarily by subject area(more on this in Section 1.2). In connection with the general question of logic, particular questions arise relating to the most important factors and features of the chosen logic of presentation. More precisely, the following question arises:

Which (or which) of the following factors should be chosen as the main one when presenting the educational material:

Time (and then to present the material filiatively, chronologically);

Personalities (as they recently write about management gurus);

Branches of the economy (branch management concepts);

Countries (regional management concepts);

Business size (small, medium, large);

Organizational and legal form of organization (state, public, private, mixed organizations);

Control systems in general (synthetic theories);

Control functions and/or other elements of the control system (one-dimensional theories);

Functional areas of the organization (i.e. development of views on the management of marketing, finance, personnel, etc.);

Aspects of management (economic, legal, political, psychological, sociological, etc.);

Other Historical and Scientific Researches (HIS) - the history of economic, political, legal, sociological, administrative and other teachings (comparative approach);

Theories of organizations (theoretical-organizational approach);

Management paradigms (in the style of I.T. Prigozhin, N.A. Kuhn and other science scholars);

Backgrounds (civil history, economics, politics, sociology, demography)?

The list of factors can be continued, but when presenting the material, only one factor is chosen as the main one. Of course, a combined approach to the presentation of educational material is also possible, in some sections we used it. This is due, on the one hand, to the desire for a systematic and versatility of presentation, and on the other hand, to the presence of little-studied areas of IUM, gaps and "blank spots" in IUM when choosing any factor.

When presenting, we tried to answer the main questions of IUM: “Why and for what purpose was this or that idea of ​​management proposed? Why was it proposed at this particular time? Why in this particular place? Why did this person turn out to be the author of the idea? Given that the textbook is intended for bachelors and masters, we tried to present it in a fairly simple and understandable language, with good historical references, an anthology, a fairly complete bibliography, regardless of the chosen logic of presentation. For those who are interested in research on IUM, at the end of the textbook, the topics of abstracts - scientific projects (see Appendix I) are proposed.

Textbook plan. The textbook consists of 8 chapters. Chapter 1 presents the main methodological issues of the formation and development of the history of managerial thought (HIM). First of all, the relevance of increasing the scientific character in making managerial decisions is emphasized, the general and specific characteristics of IUM as a scientific, applied and educational discipline, the role and place of IUM in the history of other sciences, the organization of research and development methods of IUM, source studies and other problems of IUM are disclosed.

The 2nd chapter characterizes the main sources and sources of world management thought over several centuries - from the birth of the first human civilizations to the beginning of the era of early feudalism; the administrative aspects of the monuments of administrative thought of the Ancient World - treatises of thinkers, statesmen, heads of households, public, religious and military figures are revealed.

The 3rd chapter continues the description of the main directions and works, which reflect the development of managerial ideas, views and concepts in the era of feudalism, the genesis and formation of capitalism in Western countries. This chapter reflects, perhaps, one of the first special treatises on management, the authors of which were the organizers of production, statesmen, scientists, representatives of higher education, including the first business schools.

Chapter 4 analyzes the genesis and development of managerial thought in Russia in the 9th–18th centuries. The authors of ideas here are statesmen and religious figures, scientists, representatives of various estates and classes in Russia, including representatives of the emerging third estate. The sources were ancient chronicles and legends, legislative acts, monographs of scientists and thinkers, archival documents and memoirs.

Chapter 5 reflects the development of managerial thought in Russia in the 19th century. At this time, the works of M. Speransky appeared, for the first time departments of chamberlists were opened at Russian universities, treatises on management by representatives of higher education were published, materials from all-Russian trade, industrial and industry congresses, at which topical problems of management were discussed, management reforms were carried out, led by Russian state figures.

The 6th chapter presents the main Western schools of management of the 20th century. In all known works on the history of social thought, this era is referred to as the era of scientific management. The characteristics of management schools show both their continuity with the management ideas of the past, and their fundamental nature in terms of manifestation in future management theories and concepts.

The 7th chapter is devoted to the history of Soviet management thought - from the works of the propagandists of the Taylor system to the original works of Soviet scientists and management practitioners on the effective management of a planned socialist economy.

Chapter 8 gives a description of modern management theories based on the achievements of socio-psychological research, and several new management concepts, some of which are still staged.

In preparing the textbook, with their advice and suggestions, the author's colleagues, employees of the departments of production management and the history of the national economy of the Faculty of Economics of Lomonosov Moscow State University, provided invaluable professional assistance. M.V. Lomonosov, participants of the international conference on IUM, regularly organized at Moscow State University. And, of course, this textbook would not have been written without the assistance and financial support of the World Bank.

The author expresses his gratitude to Professor Gavriil Kharitonovich Popov, who blessed me with research on the history of managerial thought, and to his friend Boris Anatolyevich Korobov, who convinced me that the history of management and managerial thought is a necessary and sufficient means not only of scientific proof of the past, but also explanations of the present and even possible prediction of the future in the management of human communities.