The experimenter carries out an active dialogue with the computer. Information is used on adjustment indicators of estimated demand for a type of product and its final production by the industry. If the indicator exceeds one, it means that the demand for the product is higher than the supply; if it is less than one, then vice versa. Adjustment indicators and growth rates of gross output by industry are analyzed by the experimenter from the perspective of their tolerance.
The survey was carried out during a period when the industry operated under conditions of a 6-day working week with an 8-hour working day, therefore, if the distribution of gas consumption by hour of the day does not currently differ fundamentally from what took place during the survey, then the distribution by day of the week is significantly has changed (except, of course, for industries with a continuous technological process). In this regard, the data in Table. IX-14 were adjusted based on expert assessments in relation to the conditions of a 5-day working week (Table IX-15).
The starting point for developing macroeconomic indicators is the volume of annual total production of goods and services. In the national accounting system this indicator called the gross national product (GNP). GNP can be defined as the total market value of the entire annual volume of final production of goods and services in the economy of a given state. The criterion of final production of goods and services means that those economic benefits that are already included in the cost of final products are not included in GNP. This kind of goods is called intermediate products.
First, GNP is the total market value of the entire final production of goods and services in an economy over a given period (usually a year).
Let's consider distribution channels through which goods from final production through a system of distribution centers enter final consumption (Fig. 48).
Enterprises that represent a combination of industries that are successive stages of one technological process are classified, as a rule, by final production. For example, mining industry enterprises, in which, along with the extraction and primary processing of minerals, their subsequent processing into products is carried out, belong to one or another industry for the processing of extracted materials. But in cases where the production of the final product plays a subordinate role in the overall output of the enterprise and the products of one of the intermediate productions (semi-finished products) have a predominant role in it, this enterprise belongs to the industry for this intermediate production.
When planning chemicalization, which includes the stages of creation, production and application of chemical materials and technologies, it is of particular importance to establish indicators for the development of branches of the chemical industry based on the economic purpose of its products, which are mainly objects of labor, i.e. intermediate products. Therefore, these indicators should be determined based on an analysis of the goals and objectives of final production facilities using chemical materials and the possibilities for their effective use.
Balance Cost of final production in progress
Production and sale of intermediate and final production and sale of intermediate, but not sale of final
The second is the contradiction between the raw material content of exports and the orientation of imports towards final production products. This is easy to see in the example of the multi-level structure of the modern economy 1 - level that generates a flow of innovations and new designs 2 - quickly updated individualized production 3 - mass large-scale production 4 - production of basic resources for large-scale production 5 - traditional slowly updated industries (agricultural sector, etc.) P.). Higher levels also have a higher value added rating.
In ideal market conditions forest rent generated at different stages of forest processing should be the same amount. In practice, in domestic conditions, due to the disparity in prices for primary products and final products, at the upper stages of forest processing, most of the forest rent is accumulated, which is appropriated by producers of secondary forest products.
We should not, of course, forget that high discipline is by no means the result of only convictions and suggestions. The strict requirements imposed today on everyone who seeks to win or maintain their place in the ranks of the employed are by no means less effective. But no matter what dictates the high respect for work inherent in the vast majority of the Japanese nation - the economic imperatives of our days or the peasant’s dramatic and tenacious struggle with nature, which every now and then takes away from him a piece of land and a roof over his head - it is impossible to draw any conclusion tasks for the development of production, without subordinating them to the idea of forming a high culture and labor discipline.
The scourge of modern production, especially mechanical engineering, is local vibration. Local vibration is mainly experienced by persons working with hand-held power tools. Local vibration causes spasms of the blood vessels of the hand and forearms, disrupting the blood supply to the limbs. At the same time, vibrations act on nerve endings, muscle and bone tissues, causing a decrease in skin sensitivity, salt deposition in the joints of the fingers, deforming and reducing the mobility of the joints. In these cases, workers complain of aching, aching, pulling pain in their arms, often at night. Oscillations low frequencies cause a sharp decrease in capillary tone, and fluctuations high frequencies-vasospasm.
Currently, complex complexes have been developed computer programs, capable of calculating the probability of an accident at an enterprise, determining the magnitude and nature of hazardous emissions, taking into account meteorological conditions, terrain, location of roads and settlements and ultimately build maps (isolines) of risk distribution (Fig. 5.2) in industrial and residential areas. Particular attention is paid to the sources of major accidents at nuclear power plants, gas pipelines, chemical production, etc. Beryllium oxide, hydrogen, chlorine, ammonia, sulfur dioxide, flammable gases, etc. are identified as substances with negative properties.
Fire, as a phenomenon, can take various shapes, however, they all ultimately come down to a chemical reaction between flammable substances and air oxygen (or another type of oxidizing environment). For a fire to occur, the presence of three components of a combustible substance, oxygen (or other oxidizing agent) and an initial source of heat with energy sufficient to begin the combustion reaction is necessary. The fuel and oxidizer must be in certain proportions to each other. Most fires are associated with the combustion of solid substances, although the initial stage of the fire may be associated with the combustion of liquid and gaseous flammable substances, which are used in large quantities in modern industrial production.
Production as an expedient human activity to obtain material goods needed by society ultimately consists in the transformation of raw materials into finished products by changing their size, shape, composition or spatial arrangement.
private ownership of the means of production, the contradictory interests of the owners of enterprises, large monopolistic associations, the desire of each of them to maximum profit do not allow the economy to run smoothly. By expanding or reducing the production of a particular product, capitalist enterprises (firms, monopolies) can only focus on the market, on fluctuations in prices and stock prices. In other words, the economy of capitalism develops spontaneously, anarchically. It is characterized by periodic crises, production declines, unemployment, and underutilization of production capacity. Naturally, in such
With a centralized form of repair, its quality improves, and higher labor productivity and minimal repair costs are achieved, which ultimately ensures increased production efficiency.
The need for proportional development of the economy exists, of course, in a capitalist society. However, under capitalism, private ownership of the means of production, the contradictory interests of enterprise owners, the tycoons of large monopoly associations, and the desire of each of them for maximum profit do not allow the economy to be conducted systematically. When expanding or reducing the production of certain products, capitalist firms can only focus on the market, on fluctuations in prices and stock prices.
Under socialism, workers collectively own the means of production. Ultimately, workers are both managers and governed. Before the socialist revolution
A technique for managing a project (work), the main purpose of which is to ensure compliance with work schedules and deadlines for their completion. It is based on the assumption that the duration of events can be fairly accurately estimated.
Kanban (see [K 13]) and MRP (see [M 126]). The OPT system, like the Kanban system, belongs to the class of “pull” (see [C 95]) systems for organizing supply and production. Some Western experts, not without reason, believe that OPT is actually a computerized version of the Kanban system, with the significant difference that OPT prevents the occurrence of bottlenecks in the supply-production-sales chain, and Kanban allows you to effectively eliminate bottlenecks that have already arisen . The main principle of the OPT system is to identify bottlenecks in the production system or, in the terminology of its creators, critical resources. Critical resources can include, for example, stocks of raw materials, machinery and equipment, technological processes, and personnel. The efficiency of the production system as a whole depends on the efficiency of the use of critical resources, while the intensification of the use of other resources, called non-critical, has virtually no effect on the development of the system. Losses of critical resources have an extremely negative impact on the production system as a whole, while saving non-critical resources does not bring real benefits, in terms of final results. The number of critical resources for each production system is on average five. Based on the principle discussed above, firms using the OPT system do not strive to ensure 100% utilization of workers engaged in non-critical operations, since the intensification of the labor of these workers will lead to an increase in work in progress and other undesirable consequences. Firms encourage the use of the working time reserve of such workers for advanced training, holding meetings of quality circles (see [K 179]), etc. In the OPT system, a number of tasks of operational production management are solved on a computer, including the formation of a production schedule for one day, a week, etc. When forming a production schedule close to the optimal one, the following criteria are used: 1. The degree to which production needs for resources are met. 2. Efficient use of resources. 3. Funds withdrawn from work in progress funds. 4. Schedule flexibility, i.e. the possibility of its implementation during emergency shutdowns of equipment and short supply of material resources. When implementing a schedule, the OPT system controls the use of production resources to produce ordered products at fixed time intervals. The duration of these intervals is determined by expert opinion. During each interval, decisions are made on the operational management of the production process. To facilitate decision-making, the priorities of each type of product are determined programmatically using weighting functions, the so-called management coefficients (order rate, production time, etc.) and other criteria (acceptable level of safety stocks, date of shipment of manufactured products, etc.) . Based on the list of product priorities, the computer plans to provide maximum resources for products that have the highest (zero) priority, and provide all other products in descending order.
The most important factor determining the nature and level of specialization is, first of all, the size of production (level of concentration) individual species products. It is established during design or during production program planning. In addition, the level of specialization is significantly influenced by the labor intensity of products, which determines the possible load of equipment in the production of products of a given range. Finally, the degree of specialization also depends on the constancy of the nomenclature and volume of output, which should, of course, be considered as relative.
Final products– these are products that go into final consumption and are not intended for further industrial processing or resale.
Intermediate products goes into the further production process or resale. As a rule, intermediate products include raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, etc.
However, depending on the method of use, the same product can be both an intermediate product and a final product. So, for example, meat bought by a housewife for borscht is a final product, since it went into final consumption, and meat bought by a McDonald's restaurant is an intermediate product, since it will be processed and put into a cheeseburger, which will be the final product in this case. product.
Added value, calculation methods
Added value is that part of the value of the product that is created in a given organization. Calculated as the difference between the cost of goods and services produced by the company (i.e., sales revenue) and the cost of goods and services purchased by the company from external organizations (the cost of goods and services purchased will consist primarily of materials consumed and other expenses paid external organizations eg costs for lighting, heating, insurance, etc.)
2.5.GDP by value added (production method)
GDP = sum of value added.
Firm's value added = firm's income - intermediate cost of production of a good or service.
Total added value = general level output - the total value of intermediate products.
GDP by expenditure
GDP = Final consumption + Gross capital formation (investment in a company, that is, the purchase of machines, equipment, inventories, place of production)) + Government expenditures + Net exports (Exports - Imports; can be either positive or negative).
Final consumption includes expenses to satisfy the final needs of individuals or society produced by the following institutional sectors: household sector, organ sector state power(public sector), private sector non-profit organizations servicing households. Gross capital formation is measured by the total value of gross fixed capital formation, changes in inventories working capital and the net acquisition of values by a unit or sector.
GDP by income
GDP = National income + depreciation + indirect taxes - subsidies - net factor income from abroad (NIF) (or + net factor income of foreigners working in the territory of a given country (NIF))
National income = wages + rent+ interest payments + corporate profits.
GNP and NFA
GNP (gross national product) is the sum of final products, value added, or the sum of goods and services produced in an economy over a certain period based on the use of national factors of production.
NFI (net factor income) is the difference between the income of citizens received in a given country and abroad.
National income and methods of calculating national income
National income is the value calculated in monetary terms of the total product created in the country during the year or the newly created value for a certain period (total income within the economy of a certain state, earned (created) by all owners) of economic resources (factors of production).
National income = GNP – (depreciation calculations + indirect taxes).
National income = NNP – indirect taxes.
Net domestic product and net national product
Net domestic product (NDP) is the difference between gross domestic product and consumption of fixed capital.
NVP = GDP – depreciation
Net national product (NNP) is the total volume of goods and services that a country produced and consumed in all sectors of its national economy over a certain period of time.
Personal income, disposable personal income, calculation methods
Personal income (PI) is the total income received by the owners of economic resources (factors of production).
Disposable personal income (RDI) is income used, i.e. available to households.
RLD = LD – individual income taxes.
Real and nominal GDP.
Nominal GDP is the total value of goods and services produced during an accounting period, according to current prices goods and services, at current prices of goods and services.
Real GDP is the value of these goods and services calculated based on the prices prevailing in the designated base year.
GDP deflator index.
It is the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP.
Many investors are interested in using their capital to raise Agriculture. The advantages for agricultural enterprises resulting from the emergence and development of agricultural holdings are very significant. To achieve a yield of 50 centners of a hectare or more, a Cooperation Agreement was concluded with the State Scientific Institution Scientific Research Institute of Agriculture of the Central Regions of the Non-Black Grain Zone, Moscow Region. Mutually beneficial cooperation in the field of grain production will allow the introduction of Novgorod region new promising varieties grain...
Share your work on social networks
If this work does not suit you, at the bottom of the page there is a list of similar works. You can also use the search button
Nikiforov Pavel Vasilievich,
Professor of the Department of Agrarian Economics of Novgorod state university named after Yaroslav the Wise, Doctor of Economics,
Social consequences of the formation and development of corporate agro-industrial formations
Institutional changes in the agri-food complex lead to the formation of large agricultural holdings, which include all parts of the food chain - from agriculture to the production of final products.
The motives for integration are diversification of capital, reduction of transaction costs and tax burden.
The success of the process of cooperation and integration depends, first of all, on the integrator enterprise, which must act as the organizer and driving force of the united formation.
In recent years, non-core companies have made significant investments in the agri-food sector. Their participation is accompanied by the attraction of private investment in the agricultural sector and the development of new technologies and equipment. Many investors are interested in using their capital to boost agriculture.
Agro-industrial integration with a reasonable choice of its forms and taking into account factors contributing to successful activities new structures can become the most important mechanism for bringing the Russian agricultural sector out of the protracted crisis.
An effective example This is the activity of the Adept group of companies, which is actually an agricultural holding operating in the Novgorod region.
CJSC Adept today is a large trading network that unites the production of pork and beef, the production of sausages, frankfurters and meat delicacies, pasta, a wholesale and retail base, a network of small wholesale stores and branded stores retail food products.
At the end of 2000, Adept CJSC open tenders acquired the bankrupt pig-raising enterprise Novgorod Pig Plant, on the basis of which a subsidiary, Novgorod Bacon LLC, was created. Our own pork production made it possible to provide the meat processing plant with high-quality fresh meat that meets all safety criteria.
Uninterrupted supply of raw materials to the Novgorod Bacon livestock complex and constant sales through trading network"Adept" ensures profit growth.
The increase in profitability of the Novgorod Bacon livestock complex is ensured by the use of modern technologies for raising and fattening animals in order to obtain high-quality raw materials.
All divisions of the holding are currently successfully operating, developing and increasing the total net profit, which can be directed towards the overall development strategy.
Thus, a phased reconstruction of the Novgorod Bacon livestock complex is currently underway. own funds holding.
At the end of 2005, Adept acquired the OJSC Velikonovgorod Meat Dvor enterprise. Currently, OJSC Velikonovgorod Meat Dvor is the largest manufacturer of canned food in Russia.
Thanks to improving the quality of its products, organizing marketing and studying the consumer market, the company manages to expand the range of products, heterogeneous in price level and designed for different purchasing power of the population.
The advantages for agricultural enterprises resulting from the emergence and development of agricultural holdings are very significant. Thanks to agricultural holdings, large and regular investments have been made in the village, modern equipment has been purchased, and modern technologies, the demand for specialists and managers is growing, as well as their ability to work in market conditions.
Diversification production activities agro-industrial formations allows you to include unused resources in production, including land, while simultaneously solving a number of social problems rural areas: creating new jobs, ensuring growth in cash incomes of rural residents.
Since 2007 Novgorod Bacon LLC began acquiring shared lands that have not been cultivated for more than 10-15 years in four districts of the Novgorod region: Volotovsky, Shimsky, Soletsky, Starorussky. The total area of purchased share lands is 10919.4 hectares; in addition, 2431.7 hectares are leased from municipalities.
In the future, over the next 5-6 years, the area of land acquired and leased (with subsequent purchase) by the enterprise will be increased to 15,000 hectares.
Their involvement in agricultural production began in 2008 in the Volotovsky district. In 2008, 3011 hectares of arable land were involved in cultivation. Cultural and technical work worth 21 million was carried out in these areas. rub.
Only advanced technologies are used in grain cultivation. To achieve a yield of 50 c/ha or more, a Cooperation Agreement was concluded with the State Scientific Institution “Research Institute of Agriculture of the Central Regions of the Non-Black Grain Zone” (Moscow Region, Nemchinovka village). Mutually beneficial cooperation in the field of grain production will allow the introduction of new promising varieties of grain crops in the Novgorod region and the subsequent production of high-quality seed material, not only to meet their own needs, but also to supply other agricultural enterprises and farms our region.
In the future, 10,000 hectares will be occupied by grain crops over the next 5 years, which will ensure that the enterprise’s need for feed grain is fully met, even taking into account the expansion of pork production.
A promising direction We consider breeding meat direction, since the main source of beef in the Russian Federation has been and remains dairy farming, but the intensification of milk production in our country is accompanied by a reduction in the number of livestock, and, consequently, in beef production. In this regard, the feasibility and possibility of developing a new industry in the Northwestern Federal District - beef cattle breeding - is being considered.
All the production resources necessary for this industry are available in the region. Currently, vast areas of agricultural land are not used; the arable land is overgrown with bushes. In the Leningrad region, 95 thousand hectares of agricultural land are unoccupied. In Novgorod, Pskov and other regions, entire areas do not have livestock farming.
Beef cattle breeding has a number of competitive advantages Compared to dairy farming, it is a less capital-intensive industry.
District farms have retained the reserves necessary to create a beef cattle breeding industry:
there are unused livestock premises in which (with minor repair costs) it is possible to house beef cattle;
the forage base allows keeping a large number of livestock and to expand it there is a sufficient amount of unused land on which it is possible to organize the procurement of bulk feed and long-term, cultivated pastures;
Dairy cattle with low productivity can be used to produce crossbred calves.
To implement this project development of beef cattle breeding, the agricultural holding has restored livestock buildings for 300 animals in the Volotovsky district, started crossing and has already obtained crossbred calves of the “limousine” meat breed.
A subsidiary, Nalishki LLC, was created in the Starorussky district.
In general, 80 new jobs were created in these areas over 2 years of work, 75 of them in the Volotovsky district. The average salary of workers in the grain and feed production area is 15,000 rubles, which is significantly higher than the regional average.
At the same time, many problems arise when forming agricultural firms and holding companies. First of all, compliance with the legal norms of modern management, regulation of economic relations between the investor and agricultural enterprises, as well as owners and co-owners of land shares.
Agricultural enterprises included in the agricultural holding, for the most part, lost their independence, most of the means of production, as well as land in the case of land shares being transferred to authorized capital. An investor can unilaterally withdraw from an agricultural holding by ceasing production, leaving the farm without financial resources, fixed and working capital.
In some cases, for agricultural holdings, agricultural enterprises are only a source of raw materials and additional profit. Development of rural infrastructure, rural housing construction, maintenance of rural areas - all these tasks are often far from the interests of agricultural holdings.
In this regard, the state policy regarding vertically integrated structures is important, which currently largely depends on what share of products they produce: the market share occupied by the holding should not conflict with the requirements of antimonopoly legislation.
Required the legislative framework, regulating the activities of integrated associations, on the basis of which agricultural producers must build relationships with business structures on a long-term structure.
Trends in post-industrial transformation of industry indicate that integration as characteristic The industrial stage of development is replaced and supplemented by specialization and outsourcing, when all non-core functions are transferred to specialized firms. In agriculture, this trend can be seen in the activities of machine-technological stations, currently specializing in harvesting, and in the future - in sowing work. Therefore, in the future, agricultural enterprises may only be left with managerial activities to coordinate the activities of structural units operating on the principles of outsourcing.
A similar cooperation project for pork production is currently being implemented at Novgorod Bacon LLC.
In 2010, a breeding facility for 5,000 sows will be built on the territory of the central estate between the villages of Podberezye and Chechulino. This is another socially significant project of regional importance.
After it reached its design capacity in 2012. 30% of the offspring of piglets (34,000 head) will be transferred for fattening on the basis of contracts to private household plots and peasant farms, which will allow at least 1,500 people to be employed in the region. In 2013 2015 in the region, primarily where Novgorod Bacon LLC is present, and in other depressed areas, in agreement with the regional Administration, it is planned to build or repair abandoned farms for large cattle at least 25 family-type mini-farms for fattening pigs with maximum automation of production processes. The effectiveness of this project has been confirmed in practice. Novgorod Bacon LLC, together with the small enterprise SK-Progress LLC, is implementing a project for fattening pigs for 500 heads in the Soletsky district. SK-Progress LLC has restored an abandoned pigsty and fattens pigs, and Novgorod Bacon LLC supplies it with pigs for fattening and provides it with feed and vehicles. After 100 days of fattening, pigs weighing 110 kg are handed over for slaughter to the slaughterhouse of OJSC Velikonovgorod Meat Dvor, as well as Novgorod Bacon, part of the Adept Group of Companies.
As competition grows, agricultural holdings will begin to take measures to create farm-type enterprises, individual and cooperative, strictly specialized and employing 2-3 employees per 100 hectares, rather than 10-20 employees. The farming movement will gain a “triple breath” thanks to agricultural holdings. From a utilitarian-economic point of view, a reduction in employment will certainly be a step forward, but serious social problems will arise.
The low level of development and management of rural areas determines the further search for mechanisms for the restoration and adaptation of enterprises in the agricultural sector, as well as providing social guarantees. IN rural areas, where the basis of production is agriculture, the role of municipal territorial entities increases, which should be considered as a complex dynamic system with a large number of cause-and-effect relationships between factors. Their main task, in our opinion, is to organize a social partnership between government, business and the population, the basis of which should be the social-production complex.
On the basis of corporate structures, an effective economic mechanism can be formed, including the reproduction of labor resources, focused on the level of development of scientific and technological progress and industrial relations in order to diversify production.
Prospects social development In rural areas, the influence of agro-industrial formations will largely be determined by state policy, combining the efforts of government, business and the population.
PAGE 3
Other similar works that may interest you.vshm> |
|||
| 19639. | Analysis of production and sales of livestock products | 38.43 KB | |
| Size and structure commercial products. Analysis of production and sales of livestock products. Analysis of the dynamics and degree of implementation of the plan for the gross output of livestock products. Analysis of the influence of individual factors on the implementation of the livestock production plan. | |||
| 1798. | Relationship between production plans and product sales | 24.04 KB | |
| The concept of product sales and product distribution channels. Relationship between production plans and product sales. The relevance of the topic lies in the fact that the volume of production and sales of products are interdependent indicators. In conditions of limited production capabilities and unlimited demand, the volume of production comes first. | |||
| 1783. | Cost and profitability of production at the enterprise | 335.11 KB | |
| The largest share in the cost of production falls on raw materials and basic materials, and then on wages and depreciation charges. Therefore, the formation of production and distribution costs and their accounting are important for the production and economic activities of organizations. | |||
| 19539. | Increasing the efficiency of sheep production | 78.68 KB | |
| Sheep productivity and production. Improving the conditions for reproduction and increasing the productivity of sheep. Today, sheep breeding in the region is developing in three directions: preserving the Buryat type of the Transbaikal fine-wool breed, spreading the Buryat semi-coarse-wool sheep breed and breeding the local aboriginal coarse-wool breed. The sheep population is constantly being restored both in the region and in Russia. | |||
| 15518. | Automation of the process of monitoring the production of mushroom products | 103.46 KB | |
| Offered on the market software The 1C Enterprise system allows you to keep records of manufactured products, but to take into account the specifics of document flow at an enterprise for growing mushroom products, the development of additional software modules is required, which is unprofitable for a small-scale business. | |||
| 20412. | Basic prerequisites for the development of production and processing of products | 35.49 KB | |
| Basic prerequisites for the development of production and processing of products. Product sales market. Applied production technology. Organization of storage and processing of products. | |||
| 18594. | Ways to increase the efficiency of production and sales of products | 181.34 KB | |
| Composition and structure of trade turnover Catering. Methodology for analyzing trade turnover. Analysis of turnover and production of the enterprise. General analysis of trade turnover indicators. | |||
| 9360. | Goods. Production capacity of the enterprise. Product planning | 51.86 KB | |
| Product production planning. Absolute product ratings. Relative product ratings. Product production planning. | |||
| 17364. | Organization of production and sale of culinary products in a European restaurant | 719.03 KB | |
| The restaurant of European cuisine “Gold” as an enterprise focused on a certain contingent of consumers in this situation justifies its creation, which is due to the increased interest of potential consumers in catering services for organizing leisure time in modern conditions. | |||
| 18661. | Analysis of the volume of production and sales of goods, products, works, services | 105.79 KB | |
| Each science has its own subject. Under the subject economic analysis understands the economic processes of enterprises, their socio-economic efficiency and final financial results activities that develop under the influence of objective and subjective factors, reflected through the system of economic information. | |||
In the complex, light industry occupies not last place. This industry specializes in the production of fabric, clothing, shoes, etc. In addition to ready-to-use products, light industry produces semi-finished products, blanks and materials for other enterprises. For example, these could be tires, steel rope cores.
Those existing in Russia are located in different cities. Several stand out major centers similar productions. Scientific developments are constantly underway here, and numerous new sub-sectors are emerging.
general characteristics
Modern light industry is an industry, which ensures the production of goods for mass consumption. This sphere of human activity includes the full production cycle of products. It begins with the extraction of raw materials and ends with the sale of ready-to-use products.
This industry operates to ensure the required level of indicators for the supply of products that are massively consumed by the people. The number of finished products must fully satisfy the population's demand for them.
All sectors that are part of light industry can be divided into 3 groups. The first of these includes enterprises for the production of raw materials. The second group includes industries that produce blanks and semi-finished products. They operate to provide their products as light industry industry and other sectors. The third group includes the production of final products.
Commodities light industry in Russia carry out processing of hides, extraction of cotton, and semi-finished production includes spinning and textile work. The final product manufacturing industries specialize in the production of shoes, clothing, carpets, etc. Enterprises in this group occupy the majority of all light industry production.
Peculiarities
They occupy the lion's share in the production of consumer goods. They have a significant impact on the entire economy of the country.
Light industry has a number of features. Its production facilities of the first group, which specialize in the extraction of raw materials, are located close to the centers of their concentration. During the manufacturing process of the final product, individual stages of the cycle can occur in different factories. Full-cycle enterprises are rare here.
Much attention is paid to finishing processes. Appearance products plays important role. Therefore, appropriate requirements are imposed on the selection of personnel (for example, the presence of taste).
Enterprises in this field of activity are usually small in size. They work dynamically, constantly changing their range. This is due to constant changes in fashion and consumer preferences. These industries predominantly employ women. The end consumer is predominantly individuals. These features are taken into account in the process of organizing production cycles.
Prospects for investment
In our country they have big potential for investment. This is due to the presence of a large amount of unused production capacity. It is also profitable for investors to invest their funds in such productions due to the high turnover of investments and their rapid return. In addition, the presented industries do not require significant capital investments. It is possible to complete more than two complete rotation cycles per year. This also indicates benefits when investing.
The equipment can be installed in just a few months. Therefore, in the first year of operation, such enterprises can make a profit. Investors can invest their temporarily free funds in more than 30 different sub-sectors. Many of them are quite new and very promising.
The raw material base for light industry in our country is well developed. It fully satisfies the needs of enterprises for wool, flax, chemical threads and fibers, leather and fur. Raw materials are supplied by agricultural enterprises, chemical industry. Its price is reasonable. This allows us to produce products that are affordable to different categories of consumers.
provides a number of opportunities for investors. Doing business in this direction is promising.
Structure
Main branches of light industry include more than 30 different sub-sectors. They are conditionally divided into 3 main groups. The first of these is the textile industry. This group includes cotton and linen production. This also includes enterprises in the wool, knitting and silk sub-sectors. Enterprises of this group specialize in the primary processing of raw materials and the production of various types of materials (woven, non-woven).
Belongs to the second group of industries. It specializes in processing fabrics and other materials textile industry, leather, fur, etc. This category includes both enterprises with a stable assortment (production of workwear) and more complex, dynamic production (tailoring of designer clothes). This is a rather heterogeneous group. Its enterprises are very diverse and have different principles of location.
The third group includes the fur, leather, and footwear sub-industries. Production facilities in this area closely cooperate with each other.
Features of accommodation
They do not have a clearly defined specialization in territorial terms. In almost all regions there are certain industries of this group. However, in the textile industry it is still possible to identify the main areas of concentration of enterprises.
Thus, the Tver and Ivanovo regions produce a fairly large number of products from cotton fabric. If we consider the Central Economic Region, we can draw conclusions about the concentration of these industries here.
More than 55% of all cotton fabrics are produced in the Ivanovo region. Significantly fewer such industries are concentrated in the Moscow (11%) and Vladimir regions (7%). 6% of all cotton fabrics in this region are produced directly in Moscow.
Basic factors for the location of light industry sectors practically no different from other areas of activity. They most often complement the complex National economy, and also satisfy needs within regions.
Placement factors
There is no unanimous opinion on the location of production in the represented industry. However, there are three main groups of factors influencing this process. can be located taking into account the concentration of raw materials, consumers or labor resources. Previously, enterprises in this sector of the national economy were highly dependent on the location of energy enterprises. Today, thanks to the availability of this resource, this factor has become secondary.
The consumer factor influences raw material production enterprises. Their products are sometimes difficult to transport over long distances. Therefore, such enterprises are concentrated near raw material processing factories.
Also, primary processing enterprises are located near cotton production centers, livestock farms, etc. This significantly reduces production costs and increases its profitability.
Labor resources are also an important factor in the location of enterprises. The overwhelming majority of such industries are women. Therefore, it is advisable to build factories of the presented specialization in areas with heavy industry enterprises. They predominantly employ male labor. This allows you to use the most effectively labor resources region.
Textile industry
Textile production is largest light industry sector. It specializes in the production of fabrics for the population and other industries (footwear, clothing, food industry, mechanical engineering, etc.).
The leading sub-sector here is the cotton industry. It is focused on imported natural raw materials (supplied by the countries of Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Egypt, Syria).
The flax industry is also an important component of the textile industry. In its structure higher value has production of technical fabrics than household products.
The first place in the textile industry in terms of gross production is occupied by wool processing enterprises. This is due to the high cost of raw materials. The cost of fixed assets is higher only in the cotton industry. Such enterprises produce both threads, fabrics and finished products.
The silk industry consists of ¾ mills. They specialize in cocoon winding, weaving, spinning and finishing operations. Fabrics and threads can be made from natural, artificial fiber, or a mixture of different types of threads.
Garment industry
Garment light industry It is considered one of the most material-intensive industries. Raw material costs here can be up to 80%. Here, further processing of fabrics, linens, knitwear, artificial leather and fur takes place.
This industry processes about 4/5 of all materials for household consumption. This is a heterogeneous industry. Its structure includes simple industries, the range of which does not change for a long time. They specialize in the production of workwear. More complex industries are concentrated in large cities. Their range is constantly changing under the influence of fashion trends.
In recent years, enterprises of the domestic clothing industry have been cooperating with foreign companies. High level professional training and low labor costs help attract foreign manufacturers. Domestic production improves quality own products. By adopting the experience of global manufacturers, clothing factories began to produce competitive products that can be supplied to the world market.
Industries are distributed evenly throughout Russia. They are defined in almost every region. Such products usually provide for clothing and other products.
Leather and footwear industry
Light industry products would be incomplete without leather, footwear and fur products. Here, natural and artificial leather, fur, sheepskin, and film materials are processed. They produce shoes, leather goods, clothing, etc.
In terms of the number of products produced, our country ranks 8th in the world. This figure has decreased slightly in recent years. Fur production has no analogues in the world. It is export oriented.
Leather finishing also plays a leading role in the industry. Artificial materials are also used in this area of economics. The North-Western and Central economic regions are leading in this direction of production. Concentrated here largest enterprises sub-sectors. The largest number of them are located in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
The footwear industry is characterized by high material and labor intensity. It is important for this sub-industry to strengthen its own raw material base. The cost of imported semi-finished products and materials is constantly increasing. This entails the production of expensive products that are uncompetitive on the world market.
Leather goods are presented in the form of bags, gloves, cases, as well as balls and other products.
Industry problems
Has several limiting factors. Despite the fact that the dynamics of production growth is positive, the products of domestic enterprises account for only 20% of the total turnover. This is due to several factors.
Remuneration for qualified specialists is quite low. This entails a loss of interest among young people in professions in the industry. As a result, the quality of the final product decreases, which becomes uncompetitive even in the domestic market.
In the structure of fixed assets, more than 50% is obsolete equipment. It has been in operation for over 10 years, which does not allow increasing product turnover or producing modern products. IN developed countries the obsolescence rate of fixed assets does not exceed 15%.
Lack of investment does not allow enterprises in the industry to expand and develop new technologies. These are most often small factories that produce products for a small number of consumers.
In almost every significant light industry there is monopolization. It is extremely difficult for new businesses to deal with them. Without proper government support, the development of light industry in our country is extremely problematic. It is necessary to allocate subsidies and subsidies to new enterprises and prevent the emergence of a monopoly in all sub-sectors. Increased investment will contribute to updating equipment and manufacturing technologies. This will help domestic enterprises enter the world market and produce competitive products.
Having considered the main light industry, as well as their features, we can draw conclusions about the development of this sphere of national production. Existing problems and constraining factors must be eliminated legislatively and by attracting investment capital from domestic and foreign investors.
Xeroform ointment - Unguentum Xeroformii
Compound: Xeroform 10 h
Vaseline 90h
Description: ointment of yellow color, uniform consistency with a characteristic odor.
Package: Available in glass bottles of 50.0 g and 100.0 g.
Storage: in a container that protects from moisture and light, in a cool, dark place.
Application: astringent, drying and antiseptic. Prescribed for skin diseases.
Chemical production scheme.
There is no interaction between the base and the drug substance, so this section is missing.
Production flow diagram
VR-1.1 Preparation of premises
VR-1.Auxiliary work
VR-1.2 Equipment preparation
VR-1.3 Personnel training
VR-2.1 Weighing and melting the base ingredients
VR-2 Preparation of base, medicinal substance, container
VR-2.2 Filtration of base ingredients
TP-1 Preparation of ointment
TP-1.3 Standardization of ointment
UMO-1.2 Packaging in primary containers
UMO-1 Packaging, labeling, shipment
UMO-1.3 Packaging in secondary containers
UMO-1.4 Marking
Shipment to warehouse
Hardware production diagram and equipment specification.
Hardware diagram of production.
1 – Scales 5 − Reactor-mixer 9 - Packaging
2 – Autocar 6 – Vibrating sieve 10 - Packaging, labeling
3 − Krupin chamber 7 – Vibrating mill
4 − Druk-filter 8 – Three-roller mazeter
|
Designation |
Name |
devices |
Purpose |
|
Electronic scales. | |||
|
Container for weighing. |
For weighing out base and medicinal substances. |
||
|
Device for melting ointment bases. |
To melt the base. |
||
|
Druk filter. |
For filtering the base. |
||
|
Ball mill. |
For grinding medicinal substances. |
||
|
Vibrating sieve. |
For sifting medicinal substances. |
||
|
Mixing reactor. |
For fusing the base with the medicinal substance. |
||
|
Three-roller mazeter. |
To homogenize the ointment. |
||
|
Tube filling device. |
For filling and capping. |
Rice. 2: 1 - container with ointment base; 2 - funnel with filter and casing; 3 – heating elements; 4 – hose for transferring ointment to the container; 5 – AC source.
This device melts and transports the base using vacuum. The funnel is placed in a container with the base and, when heated, melts it.
|
|
Fig. 3: Druk filter is a cylindrical container with a perforated partition in the lower part (with filter material fixed on it), into which a suspension is supplied under pressure from above using compressed air or inert gas. Several layers of filter paper and cardboard or fabric F1111-15-3 are used as filter material. Operates at a pressure drop from 49033 N/m to 196133 N/m.
|
|
Rice. 4: A ball mill consists of a metal or porcelain cylindrical drum covered with a lid. Metal balls of the same diameter and the crushed material are loaded inside this drum. The best grinding effect in a ball mill is achieved when the rotation speed (the number of revolutions of the drum) is optimal and corresponds to a certain operating mode. Under the influence of friction and centrifugal force, the balls and crushed material rise to a certain height, from where they fall down. As a result of the impacts and abrasive action of rolling the balls, the material is crushed.
|
|
Rice. 5: 1 - sieve; 2 – receiver cone; 3 – unbalances; 4 – belt drive; 5 – bunker.
The productivity of the sieve is 80 – 300 kg/h. When the shaft rotates with two weights welded at different angles to the shaft, frequent rotational and oscillatory movements of the sieve occur in the vertical and horizontal plane. The sifted powder is poured from the hopper onto a sieve, sifted and collected in the receiver. The frequency of oscillations is regulated by the drive belt drive, and their amplitude is controlled by the angle of the vibrator weights. The number of vibrations of the sieve is in the range of 900-1500 vibrations per minute with an amplitude of vibrations from 0.5 to 12 mm. With a high vibration frequency of the sieve, its holes are almost never clogged, since the sorted material is continuously thrown onto the mesh. Therefore, vibrating sieves are suitable for sifting a variety of materials, providing high productivity and screening accuracy.
|
|
Rice. 6: 1 – body; 2 – cover; 3, 4, 5 – mixers (anchor, blade, turbine); 6 – steam jacket of the hull.
The reactor-mixer is a cylindrical tinned or enameled boiler with steam heating. The boilers are equipped with powerful paddle mixers, which allow the ointment to be mixed throughout its entire volume at different temperatures. Dimensions: length – 3.03 m, width – 2.24 m, height – 1.65 m. Apparatus working capacity – 1.5 m3 (mixer volume 2 m3), speed of blade shafts – 80 rpm, electric motor power blade shafts - 7.5 kW, minimum productivity - 6 m3/h.
|
|
The rollers are a system of three parallel and horizontally located shafts, rotating at different speeds - the first 6.5 rpm, the second 16 rpm, the third 38 rpm. Different speeds of rotation of the rollers ensure the transfer of the ointment from shaft to shaft. Rotation speed of the middle shaft is 50 – 300 rpm. Dispersion of the ointment occurs by crushing between the shafts and abrasion, as they rotate at different speeds. In addition, the third shaft makes an oscillating motion, which enhances the rubbing effect. The ground ointment is scraped off the roller with a scraper attached to the body.
Main parameters: productivity – 1.5 – 2 kg/h; weight – 40 kg; power consumption – 0.4 kW; supply voltage frequency 50 Hz – 380 V.
Overall dimensions: length 660 mm, width 260 mm, height 460 mm.
There is a two-sided printing of the batch number, automatic
delivery of the finished tube.
Figures 9 and 10 show an automatic machine for filling and capping metal tubes. The installation's bottling unit includes: a dispenser, a piston, and a rotary valve. The piston is moved up and down using an eccentric wheel. The rotary valve rotates 90 degrees for return rotation, the filling volume is adjusted by adjusting the piston. Specially designed rotary valve ensures filling accuracy and stability
Tube Edge Folding Unit: This unit adopts the latest 180-degree edge folding and sealing method used in international practice. A special oil varnish is used to prevent the edge from breaking when folding, the size of the edge folding is precisely maintained, and special attention is paid to overcoming the difficulties caused by the increase in hardness of the edge of the tube when folding three times. This is an ideal design for folding the edge of the tube three times. Technical characteristics: quantity of filled contents - 2-5g, 10-20g; productivity - 55-60 fl/min, filling accuracy - 98%, Aluminum tube diameter - 11; 13.5; 16; 19; 22 mm, power - 0.75 kW, power source - 380 V, 50 Hz, weight - 560 kg, hot water heater power supply - 1.5 kW, 380V, compressed air - 8 (kg/cm2).
Tubes are made of aluminum grades A6 or A7 (GOST 11069-64). The inner surface of the tubes is coated with varnish used for canning containers of the FL-559 brand, and the outer surface is coated with enamel paint approved for this purpose by the Ministry of Health.
Tube filling machines are used to fill tubes. At industrial enterprises, a machine from IWKA is used for these purposes. The machine automatically performs the following operations:
a) inserting empty tubes with caps down into the socket of a horizontal rotary plate (Fig. 9) using a feeding device, on the inclined tray of which the tube is placed manually. The plate has 12 slots and rotates clockwise;
b) filling of tubes is carried out using a submersible nozzle inserted into the tube before starting the filling process. Thanks to this mode, filling is carried out without air and bubbles;
c) after filling the tube, the upper end of the cylindrical part of the tube is compressed to the length necessary for rolling the fold. In this case, the remaining air is displaced and the edge of the tube is bent once. This is followed by normal double, quadruple or ridge sealing;
d) filled and sealed tubes are delivered to an inclined ramp, from which they are sent to the packaging machine.
The machine's productivity is from 80 to 100 tubes per minute, depending on the volume and type of mass being filled.
Rice. 9 Fig. 10
Rotary plate of IWKA automatic receiving machine, Automatic filling and capping machine
filling and closing tubes.
metal tubes from IWKA
Characteristics of raw materials, materials, intermediate products.Xeroform ()
Xeroformium
Basic bismuth tribromophenolate with bismuth oxide (С6H12Br3O)2Bi(OH)Bi2O3 Properties.
Fine, amorphous yellow powder with a faint, peculiar odor. Practically insoluble in water, alcohol, ether and chloroform. Contains 50-55% bismuth oxide. Apply
externally as an astringent, drying and antiseptic agent in powders, powders, ointments. Storage
. In a container protected from light and moisture.Vaseline () .
Basic bismuth tribromophenolate with bismuth oxide (С6H12Br3O)2Bi(OH)Bi2O3 Vazelinum
externally as an astringent, drying and antiseptic agent in powders, powders, ointments. A homogeneous, stringy mass of white or yellow color, melting point from 37 to 50 0 C. Insoluble in water, but due to its high viscosity it is capable of incorporating up to 5% of water. Vaseline is slightly soluble in ethanol, soluble in ether. Miscible in all respects with fats, fatty oils, except castor, and waxes.
: in a cool place.
