INTRODUCTION
As you know, the process of selecting personnel for the implementation of any project is not an easy task, since errors in the selection of workers can lead to significant losses, high staff turnover, poor moral and psychological climate in the company’s departments, low labor and executive discipline and other negative factors . To achieve optimal results from employees, effective management and rational formation of the project team are of particular importance.
Relevance This work is determined by the desire of each project team to achieve its goals and avoid negative consequences. Therefore, each project team must be well formed, and the team management must know effective ways to plan personnel requirements and select employees suitable for the requirements. You need to have an idea of what a project is in general, what the specific project you are working on is, and know effective ways to plan staffing needs and select employees who meet the requirements.
Object The research of this work is the systemic processes of forming and managing a team
Subject research is team building as a process and team management
Purpose This work is to analyze team building as a process at the stage of team formation and identify existing methods for effectively managing a project team.
To achieve the goal, the following tasks are set in the work:
1. Describe the main provisions of the project team
2. Consider existing methods of forming a project team
3. Identify and analyze modern technologies and methods for ensuring effective project team management
Theoretical basis of the study compiled the works of Belbin R.M., Shepeleva L., Karpushin E.S., Volkov T.R., Gershanok G.A., Popov Yu.A and other authors, as well as information from electronic sources.
The work used general scientific research methods, such as: analysis and synthesis of information, generalization and systematization.
PROJECT TEAM GENERAL PROVISIONS
Concept of a project team
Recently, in management, project management and other sections of the applied theory of managing organizational systems, increasing attention has been paid to the team activities of the organization’s personnel. Teams have become widespread. On the one hand, already in the mid-1990s. more than 50% of American firms had “production” teams. On the other hand, teams exist in many areas of activity: the terms “project team”, “management team”, “creative team” have already become familiar.
A project team is a group of specialists united to achieve common goals and solve the tasks assigned to them during the project life cycle. Each specialist included in the team has specific expertise and each performs specific functions.
There are two basic principles for forming a team to manage a project.
1. Leading project participants - the customer and the contractor (besides them, there may be other participants) create their own groups, which are headed by project managers, respectively, from the customer and the contractor. These managers report to a single project manager. Depending on the organizational form of the project, the manager from the customer or from the contractor may be the manager of the entire project. In all cases, the project manager has his own staff of employees who coordinate the activities of all project participants.
2. To manage the project, a single team is created, headed by the project manager. The team includes authorized representatives of all project participants to carry out functions in accordance with the accepted distribution of areas of responsibility.
The project team management system includes organizational planning, project staffing, project team creation, and also carries out the functions of monitoring and motivating project labor resources for the effective progress of work and completion of the project. The system is aimed at directing and coordinating the activities of the project team, using leadership styles, motivation methods, administrative methods, staff development at all phases of the project life cycle. team project management exhibition
A project team requires its members to have a combination of complementary skills, which fall into three categories:
1. Technical and/or functional, i.e. professional, skills
2. Problem solving and decision making skills
3. Interpersonal skills (risk taking, helpful criticism, active listening, etc.).
With proper planning and team selection, complementarity is a prerequisite for the success of the project.
There are three types of project teams:
1. Project team.
The main role of this group is to actively support the process of achieving project goals. Participants are involved in the project from the very beginning and are interested in finding the resources required for the project.
2. Work/process team.
The role of this group is to perform certain tasks or jobs. Joint solution of assigned tasks during the implementation of the project allows us to create a highly effective group of specialists who can be involved in projects at any stage.
3. Project management team.
The role of this group is coordination, monitoring and control of the implementation of project tasks. The results of the execution of organizational and management functions of this group allow us to follow the project strategy and implement strategic decisions.
Composition and structure of the project team
The project team is created for the duration of the project and is dissolved after its completion. Obviously, the number of people in the team is determined by the scope of work provided for by the project.
To manage any project during its implementation, a specific temporary organizational structure is created, headed by the project manager.
In form, the project team reflects the existing organizational structure of project management, the division of functions, duties and responsibilities for decisions made in the process of its implementation. At the top level of the structure there is a project manager, and at the lower levels there are performers, departments and specialists responsible for individual functional areas.
The main strategic factor in the creation and activities of a project team is the implementation of the project, which has an increased share of risk and is subject to constant changes. Therefore, a special characteristic of the project team is the entrepreneurial nature of its activities, aimed at solving semi-structured problems and quickly responding to the requirements of the external environment and changing conditions for the implementation of the project.
The process of team building is usually considered as the formation of a single, integral team of managers capable of effectively achieving the goals of the project. Team cooperation of personnel allows increasing the productivity of managerial labor by 70-80%.
The project team is created by the project manager – the legal entity-customer. The task of the project manager when forming a team is to select team members who would provide:
1. Compliance of the quantitative and qualitative composition of the team with the goals and requirements of the project;
2. Effective group work on project management;
3. Psychological compatibility of team members and the creation of an active, stimulating “intra-project” culture;
4. Extended intra-group communication and development of optimal group solutions to problems arising during the implementation of the project.
The project manager appoints a project manager who provides general management of the project, controls its main parameters and coordinates the activities of team members. The project manager, with the approval of the manager, determines the required number of specialists - team members, their qualifications, selects and hires workers.
The “backbone” of the team consists of its permanent members – the project developers. They can attract specialists from areas of interest to them as assistants.
A project team is made up of people who are each assigned a specific role and responsibility for completing the project. Once roles and responsibilities have been assigned to project team members, they must actively participate in project planning and decision making. Involving team members early in the project allows them to use their existing experience in project planning and strengthens the team's focus on achieving results. As the project progresses, the professional and numerical composition of the project team members may change. Project team members are also called "project staff."
Team work is characterized by mandatory and regular cooperation of team members, a clear distribution of roles, and strict, documented coordination of actions.
The project management team is part of the project team; she is responsible for performing project management activities (e.g., planning, directing, and closing). This group may be called the core, executive, or leadership team. On small projects, project management responsibilities may be distributed among all team members or assigned directly to the project manager. The project sponsor works in liaison with the project management team and is typically involved in issues such as project financing, project scope clarification, and other issues that affect the performance and cost-effectiveness of the project.
Project human resource management processes include the following:
1. Human resource planning - defining and documenting roles, responsibilities and accountability, and creating a project staffing management plan.
2. Recruiting a project team - attracting the human resources necessary to complete the project.
3. Development of the project team - improving the qualifications of project team members and strengthening interaction between them in order to increase the efficiency of project execution.
4. Project team management - monitoring the performance of project team members, providing feedback, solving problems and coordinating changes aimed at improving the efficiency of project execution.
Teamwork has everything: sharing experiences, work, thoughts, feelings, excitement, happiness, tension, pleasure, emotions, doubts and success. All this increases the organization's learning capabilities. For this reason, almost everything in the universal performance system concept is achieved through teamwork. To achieve effective cooperation, all components of teamwork must be taken into account.
When changing the project, changing the project management structure, completing individual stages of the project, replacing workers due to professional inconsistency by inviting temporary specialists and experts, and in other cases, the reorganization stage begins. The manager’s task at this stage is to organize the adaptation of new team members to the style and methods of relationships in the team, to develop their professional role, define responsibilities, etc.
Upon completion of individual stages and/or the entire project, individual units and/or the entire team are disbanded, respectively. In this case, there are two possible options for further actions by the company’s specialists. In the first case, at the end of the project, employees return to their functional units of the organization. In the second case, if the project team was not formed from employees of this organization, the project manager is faced with the problem of further employment of workers who do not have the opportunity to return to their previous place of work. The team leader is recommended to pay attention to the further employment of specialists in the professional field, to provide objective recommendations to project team members indicating their qualifications, knowledge, skills and work experience.
Having considered the concept of structure and types of project teams, it is advisable to move on to consider the procedure for forming a project team.
Related information.
In project management practice, two main types of project team structure are used.
Matrix form of team structure
This form is used, as a rule, for small and medium-sized projects whose life cycle lasts up to two years (this criterion varies in different countries from 0.5 to 2 years). The essence of the matrix form is that specialists from the functional departments of the company are selected for the project team on a temporary contract basis. In terms of the human aspects of project management, the matrix form has both advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages:
* flexibility in organizing and developing a team;
* the powers of the company's functional departments are not duplicated;
* team members have “confidence in the future.”
The project manager has the opportunity to obtain from functional departments as many specialists as he needs to complete the amount of work for a given period. When the volume increases or decreases, or when new types of work appear, he can change the quantitative and qualitative composition of the team at the expense of the functional departments of the company. This is a normal process of team development.
The project team does not create its own functional departments, therefore the powers and functions of individual specialists engaged exclusively in the project do not overlap with the powers of the company’s permanent functional departments.
After the completion of the project, team members return to their functional departments and continue to work for the company. The completion of the project is not associated with feelings of anxiety, uncertainty and the need to look for work. This is a very important positive factor of the matrix structure.
Flaws:
* lack of the principle of unity of command;
* temporary nature of the team;
* problems with the distribution of resources within the company;
* complexity of relationships within the company.
The main disadvantage of the matrix team structure is the violation of the principle of unity of command. The intersection of vertical and horizontal connections causes difficulties in organizing and managing a team.
Project form of team structure
To implement a large project, a branch of the company, a copy of a reduced scale, is created within the company. The functional departments of this new structure constitute the project team. This organizational form also has both advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages:
* principle of unity of command;
* certainty of position within the company;
* concentration of efforts and focus of the entire team on the result of the project.
Since the team is created for a long term (more than 2 years), it is completely focused on the project and its leader. The most important advantage of the project form is that it concentrates all the efforts of the participants on achieving the main goal of the project, without distracting them from performing other duties in the functional departments of the company.
Flaws:
* duplication of functions within the company;
* lack of flexibility in the development and reorganization of the team;
* uncertainty among team members about getting a job after completing the project.
The presence of branches of the company's functional departments within the project team leads to duplication of functions. This fact is associated with additional costs for the company. For smaller projects, the cost of duplicating existing departments within the company becomes prohibitive.
Stages of creating a team.
A project team typically goes through five stages:
1. Formation.
The main difficulties and first pitfalls at the stage of team formation can be formulated as follows:
Personal feelings:
Relationships in the team:
Determining the place of the temporary team within the company:
Does the project have management support?
At this stage, the project manager must make intensive efforts to overcome pitfalls and unite the team around the main goal of the project.
* do we work as a team?
* what is our strength and what are our shortcomings?
* how is our relationship?
* what can we improve and how?
* what steps need to be taken to achieve the desired changes?
* what problems and difficulties are we likely to face in the near future?
2. The period of cooperation between participants.
Common problems during the team execution stage are as follows.
Difficulties in team work:
Manifestation of characters:
Discussion of problems:
Incorrect reporting methods:
Manual errors:
Relationships:
3. Period of normal functioning.
4. Reorganization.
The project manager makes changes in the quantitative and qualitative composition of the team for several reasons: due to changes in the volume and type of work; replacing some employees due to their unsuitability; attracting new specialists; inviting temporary experts, etc. All this is a normal process of team development.
5. Disbanding the team.
An effective team can be characterized by generally accepted criteria for the effectiveness of any organizational structure, but there are specific features unique to a project team:
First of all, this focus the entire team on the final result, initiative and creative approach to problem solving.
High performance and focus for the best solution, active and interested discussion of emerging problems complement the characteristics of an effective team.
Selection of professionally trained specialists determines technically competent solutions to emerging issues.
In the process of working in an effective team, it is clearly visible relationship and interaction of its participants in an atmosphere of trust and participation.
Enthusiasm and creativity in the development of teams also have a place.
Destructive conflicts rarely arise in such a team, and constructive- are encouraged because they lead to better decisions.
All team members feel responsibility for implementation the project as a whole and for the completion of tasks by individual performers. This demonstrates especially clearly the high sense of teamwork.
1. Main difficulties and barriers.
The project manager must understand that various obstacles await him on the way to the development of the team, and try to create an environment that meets its needs. First of all, a project manager should avoid the following mistakes:
* unclear goals, or frequent changes of goals and priorities;
* insufficient resources and funding;
* power struggle and conflicts in the team;
* insufficient technical equipment;
* lack of interest and support from management.
2. Distribution of responsibilities and powers.
First of all, leadership positions in areas of activity must be determined, appropriate specialists appointed, functions and responsibilities distributed among them, and the necessary powers delegated. All appointments must be discussed individually with each candidate.
3. Planning the team's activities.
Team planning should begin from the earliest stage of the project.
4. Team development.
The project manager must constantly monitor changes in the team's work. Frequent conflicts, decreased intensity, and repeated mistakes are a signal of trouble in the team.
5. Creating a favorable image of the team.
It is extremely important for a project manager to provide the necessary environment for the project team to work effectively.
1. The project team(CP) – the organizational structure of the project created for the period of implementation of the project or one of the phases of its life cycle. The task of the project team management is to develop policies and approve the project strategy to achieve its goals. The project team includes individuals representing the interests of various project participants.
2. Project management team(PMC) - the organizational structure of the project, which includes those members of the CP who are directly involved in project management, including representatives of some project participants and technical personnel. In relatively small projects, the PSC may include almost all members of the CP. The task of the PMC is to perform all management functions and work in the project as it progresses.
3. Project management team(KMP) - the organizational structure of the project, headed by the manager (chief manager) of the project and created for the period of implementation of the project or its life phase. The project management team includes individuals who directly perform managerial and other project management functions. The main tasks of the project management team are the implementation of project policies and strategies, the implementation of strategic decisions and the implementation of tactical (situational) management.
The classification of project teams depending on the purpose of the project teams, the forms of their existence and the content of the work is given in Table 6.7.
Table 6.7 – Examples of classification of project teams
Types of Teams: CP – project team; MC – management team (group).
Questions for self-control
1. Indicate the main aspects of team building.
2. Explain the concept of “group dynamics”.
3. Describe the stages of development of the project team.
4. Identify and explain the types of project teams.
5. Indicate the main provisions for creating and forming a project team.
Most often, a team is understood as a group of people who complement each other and, if necessary, replace each other in achieving their goals and ensuring the implementation of a synergistic effect.
In project activities, a team means the organizational structure of a project created for the period of implementation of the entire project or one of the phases (stages) of its life cycle.
The main goal of forming a team is to ensure self-management of the project implementation process and prompt overcoming of emerging problems. Teamwork takes a long time to develop, and often the team's effective functioning is hampered by the actions of management or the project manager.
By working together, critical team issues are identified, and interaction allows for the achievement of an equilibrium that establishes a higher level of personal involvement and a favorable team climate.
There are four approaches to forming project teams (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1 Approaches to forming a project team
The stages of forming a project team are illustrated in Fig. 3.1.
In the active part of the team formation process, there are four main goals:
changing set of goals or priorities;
analysis and distribution of the way of working;
analysis of norms, decision-making methods, communications;
determining the relationships between people doing the work.
The project team must satisfy the requests of the customer and Other project participants not included in the team, expressed in the form of their declared or hidden (latent) goals.
R 
is. 3.1. Stages of forming a project team
It is customary to highlight the following goals in the project
Project participants included in the team;
Other project participants not included in the team;
Executing organization;
Project;
Teams;
Team members.
The tasks initially assigned to the project team and arising during its implementation are completely determined by the set of those declared and hidden goals, the bearers of which are the project participants.
There are three types of project teams:
project team (CP) - the organizational structure of the project, which involves both all persons directly performing the project work and persons representing the interests of various project participants. The task of the project team management is to develop a project strategy focused on achieving the project goals;
project management team (PMT) - organizational structure of the project team, including those members of the CP who are involved in project management, including representatives of some project participants and administrative and management personnel. The task of the PMC is to perform all management functions and work in the project as it progresses;
project management team (PMT) - organizational structure of the project, headed by the manager (chief manager) of the project and created for the period of implementation of the project or one of the stages of its life cycle. Often, the KMP includes employees who perform managerial and other project management functions, as well as those directly involved in decision making. Among the main tasks of such a team are the implementation of strategic decisions and the implementation of tactical (situational) management. KMP is often called the management group, simply management or top management, management, etc.
The lifetime of a project team is always associated with its beginning and end.
In the process of formation and activity of the project team, five stages are distinguished:
1) education - team members unite with the desire for mutual cooperation;
2) intensive formation - after the start of joint work, it turns out that team members have different opinions regarding ways to achieve the goals of the project and approaches to its implementation, which can lead to disputes and even conflicts;
3) normalization of activities - team members come to mutual agreement as a result of negotiations and compromises and develop standards on the basis of which their further work will be based;
4) execution of plans for project implementation - after the motivation of team members and the efficiency of its work increase, the project implementation process stabilizes and the project team can work with high efficiency throughout the entire period of its implementation;
5) transformation of the team or its disbandment - the completion of the team’s work as work on the project is completed requires resolving the issue of the future work of team members. By the end of a project, performance can either increase (team members focus on completing the task with a fairly clear view of their future) or decrease (team members feel regret about ending their work together, especially if their future is uncertain).
In practice, different teams go through these stages differently. It often happens that teams fall apart without reaching not only the effective implementation of the project, but also the stage of normalizing activities. This depends on both internal (for example, on the general level of professional management culture in the company) and external reasons.
The task of the project team manager is to ensure a constructive transition of the project team from one stage of the project life cycle to another within the framework of project activities and bring the project to successful completion.
The project team is the management team. The main factors determining the principles of team formation include
1. Project specifics. The project team is organized for its implementation, therefore such a characteristic as the specifics of the project is one of the main ones in the formation of the team.
The specifics of the project determine:
Formal team structure, which is approved by management;
Role cast;
A list of knowledge, skills and abilities that team members must possess;
Timing, stages, types of work on the project.
Obviously, the composition of the team for the implementation of a construction project should include designers, builders, suppliers, etc. And the team of a scientific project should include scientists, experts, specialists in the fields of relevant knowledge, etc.
2. Organizational and cultural environment. This project team environment is divided into external and internal. The external environment includes the project's environment in all aspects. The internal environment, or organizational culture of the team itself, includes the following characteristics:
Team norms accepted and shared by all participants;
Ways to distribute power;
Cohesion and connectedness of team members;
Characteristic ways of organizing and conducting team interaction (team processes - coordination, communication, conflict resolution and decision-making activities, establishing external relations);
Organization of role distribution.
3. Features of the personal style of interaction of its manager or leader with other team members. These characteristics are based on the concept of “leader type,” which is understood as the characteristic features that determine the entire system of relationships between the leader and subordinates. The modern concept of leadership emphasizes its value as increasing the ability of subordinates to self-organization and self-control. The most adequate leader is the one who can lead others in such a way that they lead themselves. The authors call a person capable of such leadership a super leader. Project team management is associated with the need to create a rational structure, ensure a high degree of professionalism of employees, and the difficulty of achieving the optimal balance of external control and team independence.
A manager must be flexible, confident in himself and his employees. Influence in a team is not based on status or position, but on professionalism and competence.
Basic approaches to forming and approximate team composition
There are four main approaches to team building:
Goal-setting (goal-based);
Interpersonal;
Role-playing;
Problem-oriented.
A goal-oriented approach (based on goals) allows team members to better navigate the processes of project selection and implementation.
The interpersonal approach focuses on improving interpersonal relationships in a team and is based on the idea that interpersonal competence increases team performance. Its goal is to increase group trust, encourage shared support, and increase intra-team communication.
Role-based approach - holding discussions and negotiations among team members regarding roles; it is assumed that the roles of team members overlap. Team behavior can be changed as a result of changes in their performance as well as individual role perceptions.
The problem-oriented approach (through problem solving) involves organizing a pre-planned series of meetings with a group of specialists within a team who have common organizational relationships and goals. The approach involves sequentially developing procedures for solving team problems and then achieving the main team goal.
The main goal of forming a team is to independently manage and overcome your problems. This process may not be realized immediately, but over a long period of time. Often the management or manager itself prevents the team from working effectively. In the course of teamwork, the most important (current) team problems are identified, and the group can reach a new equilibrium state, which establishes a higher level of personal participation and team climate.
In the active stage of the team formation process, there are four main goals:
Changing set of goals or priorities;
Analysis and distribution of the way of working;
Analysis of norms, decision-making methods, communications;
Determining the relationships between the people doing the work. The appropriate formation of a team affects the effectiveness of all subsequent activities:
Leadership and quality of decision-making are improved;
The team organizational culture changes (usually towards greater openness);
Consistency in defending your position and reasonable cooperation among all team members appear.
Figure 1.3 shows a model for forming an effective project team.
The project team is a management structure; the management team includes specialists who are essentially managers in their areas of activity, and the team is headed by a project manager who is responsible for its implementation as a whole. (The approximate structure of the project team is summarized in Fig. 1.4).
The role of the project manager in forming and organizing the work of the team: an effective project manager helps team members go through all stages of development and reach their full potential. He must be able to predict the onset of the next stage of development and lead the team forward.
Upon successful completion of the project, the resulting feeling of job satisfaction creates a desire for further joint activities.
The project manager must imagine and analyze possible difficulties in the development of the team, since awareness of them helps to half solve the problem. Sources of problems that hinder the process of team formation are:
Unclear goals;
Lack of openness and confrontation in the team;
Unconstructive relationships with the management of the organization;
Lack of necessary resources and funding;
Poor technical equipment.
Rice. 1.3
When planning the team’s work, the project manager must clearly formulate goals and ensure consistency in the work of all functional sectors of the team for the effective use of resources allocated to the project. To do this, it is advisable to involve team members in discussing any difficulties and obstacles to effective work, analyze and take into account different opinions. Along with measures to unite the team into a highly effective working group, the project manager is called upon to establish good working relationships with senior managers, providing them with information about the progress of the project, creating a favorable image of the project.
Fig.1.4
There are three main elements to improving the effectiveness of a project manager. Effective project managers should:
1) know how they spend their time. Managing your time is a critical element of being productive;
2) be focused not on performing the work as such, but on the final result;
3) build their activities on the advantageous, strong qualities of both their own and team members, and are also required to look for positive aspects in specific situations.
Managers must learn to set priority areas of work in their implementation, to concentrate their attention on several critical areas where the greatest results can be expected.
The role of project managers in project management as a whole
The project manager must:
Quickly and efficiently organize the start of work on the project;
Organize, coordinate and monitor the progress of work on the project;
It is advisable to distribute project work among project team members;
Interact with external project participants for its effective and timely implementation;
Monitor deviations from the planned progress of work and monitor changes in the project;
Carry out communications with members of the project team in order to monitor the project, make decisions on the progress of work, resolve conflict situations during work interactions.
Requirements for a project engineer
The project engineer is obliged to monitor the technical integrity of the project, its design processes and compliance of the costs of funds, resources and time at all stages of the project with the designed indicators.
In large projects, the project engineer is essentially the deputy project manager for the implementation of the project in all its details, leaving the general leadership and management of the project team to the project manager. The project engineer controls and coordinates:
Development of calendar plans for the execution of work and the use of project resources;
Procurement and supply (in general terms) of project resources;
Execution of work on the project;
Completion of the project.
Requirements for a project administrator
The project administrator provides general management of the activities of the project team, organizes and controls the work of the project office, and provides the project team with the necessary office equipment, materials, and equipment.
Requirements for a contract administrator
The Contract Administrator is responsible for the establishment, implementation and completion of contracts with project participants, including designers, resource and service providers, project consultants, experts, and other specialists required in accordance with the specifics of the project.
Requirements for a purchasing and supply manager
This manager is responsible for selecting suppliers of work and services for the project, organizing procurement and supply of resources both in general and for specific types of work and stages of the project, identifying and controlling project risks related to procurement, supply and quality of resources. Monitors the implementation of delivery schedules and makes timely adjustments in case of violation of deadlines.
Requirements for a HR manager
Regardless of the specifics of the project, the HR manager resolves the following issues:
Attracting the human resources necessary for the implementation of the project; - training and advanced training of personnel;
Assessing the participation of each employee in achieving the goals of the project team;
Staff remuneration.
Requirements for a quality manager
This manager is responsible for all aspects of project execution related to the quality of project work, resources, and services.
Requirements for a communications manager
This manager is responsible for the expedient and effective interaction of project team members during the work process, including information, software systems, computer and telecommunications equipment and software, organizes and supports the work of a distributed virtual project office.
Requirements for a finance manager
The finance manager is an important figure in the project team. He exercises control over the organization of project financing, cash flows, organization of accounting, project budgeting, estimates of cost indicators for the completion of work, procurement of resources, and manages the cost of the project.
Requirements for a manager-coordinator
A coordinating manager is required for the implementation of particularly large projects in which large project teams with functional groups are organized, the activities of which need to be controlled and coordinated by an individual team member. In small projects, these responsibilities fall on the project manager.
Specific projects may have a variety of responsibilities that require a separate manager for certain areas of activity. For example, in the case of a complex construction project, such as a long-distance main pipeline with complex above-ground structures, there may be managers for regions, managers for the linear and above-ground part of the pipeline, for specific types of work, etc.
