If you systematize all the variety of folding. Dialectical contradiction

Published: Chebanov S.V. Personality and culture, 2009, No. 1 p. 34-41, (No. 2 p.29-34 - marriage), No. 5, p.43-47.
Initial option: Chebanov S.V. Unity theorizing about ways of ordering. Theory and methodology of biological classifications. Moscow, Nauka, 1983. Pp. 18-28 (printed for technical reasons without tables; tables converted into text by Yu.A. Schreider).
Table 5 This version was published by: Chebanov S.V. Logical foundations of linguistic typology / Chebanov S.V. Collected works. V.1 Vilnius, VLANI, 1996 and in Russo G.V., Chebanov S.V. . The problem of polymorphism in mineralogy and geochemistry // Interpretation of cenological distributions. Cenological research. Issue. 39. M., TECHNETICS, 2008, p.55-73.

VARIETY AND UNITY OF THEORIZING ABOUT WAYS OF ORDERING AND SYSTEMATIZING ACTIVITY

S.V. Chebanov

The expression “general theory of classification” or “classiology” has become widespread in the literature (Kozhara, 1984, 2006). Until such a "theory" is created, there is intense discussion of what it should be. When discussing not some completed work, but the proposed construction, the focus is on values. In this case, it is not the correctness of the results obtained, not the possibility of their practical use, but the reasons for choosing certain ideals that are worth striving for. In view of the fact that the alleged “theory” is conceived not only as a general, but also as a single one, putting forward some values, denying others, which gives rise to heated disputes. This situation seems unproductive and suggests the search for other approaches.

1. Characteristics of the proposed approach.

If the task is to develop general ideas about ordering, it is necessary, given that there are different subject areas (having their own subject specifics), to consider those that lie on the periphery or outside the existing culture (classifications in the cultures of the East, the Middle Ages, religion). Different subject areas also correspond to different forms of work, which are identified with science due to its special significance in recent centuries (Shchedrovitsky, 1995). The constructions connected with classification exist also not in research activities (construction, industry, pedagogy, etc.). The very work of ordering is carried out and fixed by various means (cognitive, empathic…; words, formulas, images…). In this regard, it is necessary to establish for which area of work certain developments are suitable.
The doctrine presented in this work is developed mainly by cognitive means from a research position, fixing and distinguishing existing and possible types of work. At the same time, an indication of the meaningfulness of the design of special types of activities is constructive. The material is the work on ordering, also produced mainly by cognitive means in the research position. The work of ordering in some areas (works of art, dreams, revelations, etc.) lies on the borderline or outside of such consideration. Thus, the sphere under consideration is quite large and it should be clarified whether it fits within the framework of science.

2. Science and comprehension.

The term "science" is very ambiguous. Bearing in mind that there is a “science of tender passion”, a science of divination, etc., simply using this term, one cannot determine what content is put into it, although often something is accepted or rejected on the basis that it is scientific or not.
First of all, it is necessary to distinguish between different historical standards of science. In order to distinguish between them, you can go in two ways - or 1) indicate what type of science is meant (science according to Aristotle, according to Galileo ..., or science in the first sense, in the second, etc. - H1, H2 and etc.), or 2) for different ways of comprehending and formalizing its results, use different terms (science, teaching, discipline, etc.).
A certain idea of the content of the term “science” is revealed by the considerations proposed below. Taken together, they quite fully describe the image of what is currently (focusing on physics) understood as science.
1. Accepting the distinction between natural-philosophical, logical-epistemic, systemic-activity (Shchedrovitsky, 1995) and complex approaches (Smirnova, 2006, Chebanov, 1986a), expressed in European culture, and considering that they can be realized with the involvement of one or more ( all) principles of the human psyche (cognitive - k, empathic - et, emotional - ets, activity - e), dozens of types and variants of fundamentally different forms of human activity are conceivable. Implementations of some of them are obviously prohibited. Thus, the system-activity approach cannot be implemented by using only one principle of the psyche. An integrated approach focused on inclusion in the fullness of human activity (D) can be fully implemented only when using all the principles of the psyche, although there are also options for the so-called "small complexity" (MK1 - MK4), based only on the three principles of the psyche. Other combinations are not clearly expressed in the historically established division of forms of activity, and, finally, the third ones, which will be discussed below, are represented by the focal points of culture (Table 1).
Thus, the implementation of the natural-philosophical approach by cognitive and empathic means gives rise to natural philosophy, only by cognitive means - calculation, cognitive, empathic and emotional - gives theology. The use of the same three principles (cognitive, empathic, and emotional) in the implementation of the logical-epistemic approach gives rise to literature, art as a form of cognition. At the same time, the combination in the activity of people of any three of the four mental principles of a person gives rise to multilateral activities of the type D1 - D4. The list of examples can be continued. It is essential that such a consideration reveals several dozen independent forms of activity that have their own internal tendencies of existence, but interact in culture and are poorly distinguishable. And only one of these forms can reasonably be qualified as a science - the implementation of the logical-epistemic approach mainly by cognitive means. Usually, almost all forms of activity carried out with the involvement of a cognitive (and sometimes activity) principle or reminiscent of a logical-epistemic approach are perceived as science.
2. The stages that are important for the formation of science as a form of knowledge can be fixed on the genetic (not historical) scheme of connections between different types of constructive research activities (Table 2).
At each of the stages of the formation of science, its own ideal of the forms of knowledge, science was created, but usually it remained unrealized. This ideal was most fully realized by Galileo, who himself realized it (Galileo, 1964). This has become the norm only for modern physics. At the same time, for Galileo, experiment is an argument in favor of rationalism against empiricism, but already in the time of Faraday, physics understands experiment as an experiment, an appeal to empiricism. Therefore, when revealing what science is, it is useful to distinguish between what is declared and what is being realized, and take into account the different content of the same concept at different times.
Galileo is also associated with an explicit introduction to the study of mental construction, which becomes the center of crystallization of theoretical knowledge (as opposed to empirical).
Ideas about science, scientific criteria were formed in such a way that the concept of “science” became more and more definite, reduced in volume, which makes it possible to present a consistent understanding of science as a series of investments (H1 includes H2, H2 includes H3, etc.).
3. In modern normative knowledge, which is to a large extent the result of the implementation of prescribed procedures and is transmitted using texts built according to the rules of logic, there are different ways of formalizing knowledge. These forms differ in the rigidity of structuralization and correlate with different understandings of science in genetic consideration, although the structures of science, teachings, disciplines are somewhat different from the understandings of science, fixed in the methodological and genetic schemes of its understanding.
One can note the characteristic features of morphology that are organically inherent in science, but can also be traced in the teachings and disciplines (often built on the example of science), although the description of the latter requires its own conceptual apparatus (see Table 3).

Tab. 3. Morphology of knowledge

Type of knowledge Characteristic					discipline
Type of knowledge Characteristic	declared	realizable	declared	realizable	declared	realizable
Proof
Experimental check
Search for laws
Math
Focus on accuracy (not correct)
Modeling
Logic value
Language meaning
Focus on simplicity
Economy of thought
Opposition between theory and empiricism
Substitutability of the researched
Reproducibility of results
Focus on novelty
Focus on knowledge (not on understanding)
Subject-object opposition
Objectification
Contrasting results with each other
One-dimensionality
Analyticism

Accepted, +- usually accepted, - not accepted, -+ usually not accepted

Considering that what is declared does not coincide with what is realized, each feature of the morphology of knowledge is characterized in two ways, and the coincidence or mismatch of different modes is an independent characteristic of the form of knowledge.
At the same time, individual features of the organization of science have different constructive meanings, which can be assessed by how many other features of science are determined by a given feature, and by how many other features of science a given feature is determined. With this approach, it turns out that the most constructively important feature of science is its one-dimensionality (the desire to present knowledge as a linearly developing system that can be described in a strictly one-dimensional text) - it both determines and is determined by more than half of the other features (12 and 13, respectively) . Also, for science, such features as mathematics, orientation to the discovery of laws, logic and experimental verification are very important. The acceptance of the subject-object opposition (6 and 1), novelty (7 and 4), substitutability of the studied material (9 and 3) and the associated reproducibility of the results (8 and 4) are of the least importance. The marginal value of novelty in this case is determined not by the internal logic of activity, but by certain social attitudes, which makes the orientation towards novelty of great importance for the social functioning of science. The small constructive value of the opposition of the subject and the object determined the possibility of the appearance of the Copenhagen interpretation of the uncertainty principle in quantum mechanics. Similarly, the relatively small constructive value of the ideas of interchangeability of the studied objects and the reproducibility of results allows the application of scientific methodology in areas in which the typological and individual properties of the studied material determine the results obtained (in biology and psychology).
Various interdisciplinary formations gravitate towards different types of structuring of private knowledge, but do not fully correspond to them (Chebanov, 2007c). So, mathematics and logic are built in the style of science, "theory" of systems and cybernetics - as teachings, philosophy - in the image of a discipline.
So, using the above schemes, science can be defined as the implementation of a logical-epistemic approach by cognitive means, the standard of which was formed in the works of Aristotle, G. Galileo, G. Spencer, K. Popper and R. Carnap, with a characteristic morphology that is different from scientific teachings and disciplines.
The considerations carried out give both a fairly complete picture of the specifics of science and a clear indication of the existence of other forms of comprehension. Obviously, different forms of comprehension, cognition must also have different ways of ordering the material. So, for example, striking examples of ordering in the natural-philosophical approach are the idea of a hierarchy - Heavenly angels and Church clergy (Dionysius, 1997), in the logical-epistemic approach - the concept of duality of taxonomy and meronomy (Meyen, Schrader, 1976), in the systemic approach - the triadic approach to classifications (Barantsev, 1983), in the system-activity - works on the typology of G.P. Shchedrovitsky (Shchedrovitsky, 1995). An integrated approach to ordering are on initial stage development and, due to a number of circumstances, is almost not reflected in publications (see, however, Chebanov, 1983a, 1986a).

3. Variety of ordering methods.

In various fields of activity, specific methods of ordering are formed. The ordering activity, depending on the sphere in which it is carried out, is called differently: classification, typology, systematization, etc. (See, for example, All-Union ..., 1981). These words are used either as synonyms or are filled with different meanings. Looking at samples of streamlining work in different areas shows that there are different standards for such work, and different “classifiers” have different approaches to work.
Such differences do not seem to be accidental - they spontaneously or reflectively fix the specificity of the material that is being ordered. Therefore, it is advisable to use different words terminologically, assigning a certain content to them and correlating them with different forms of normative knowledge. Then it turns out that in our culture, classification and typology are reflected and accepted, parametrization is used, but not reflected, the naming is reflected, but not comprehended, conjugation appears in connection with the emergence of an integrated approach.
It is important to take into account all these forms of ordering when it comes to creating a general “classification theory” due to the fact that in order to achieve generality, it is necessary to look through the entire space of forms of such work (see Table 4 - Chebanov, 1996, 2001, 2007b).

Tab. 4. Ordering and systematizing activity.

Ordering and systematizing activity

taxonomic work
t a c o n o m y *

meronomic
Job
in order

Taxonomic-meronomic work
s ist e m a t i z a t i o

taxon algebra

diagnostics

naming

scale-
ing

fragmentation

morphologization

periodization

grouping

quantitative

ordinal

nominal

enumeration

identification

naming

dimension

ranging

Name

hierarchical

faceted

parametric

structuralization

meronomization

morphologization*

dating

periodization*

parameterization

classification

typology

ordination

naming

* You have to use the terms in different senses - in a broad and narrow sense.

It turns out that similar problems and distinctions exist in the theories of measurement, scaling, expert assessments, data processing, etc., and at least some of them deserve attention and should be taken into account when constructing a typology of taxonomic-meronomic work. The most complete results were presented in two publications (Martynenko and Chebanov, 1988, 1996; see also Chebanov, 1996).
So, the totality of work with varieties can be designated as ordering and systematizing activity. It falls into three areas - taxonomy, ordering and systematization (see Table 4).
1. The subject of taxonomy is the study of extensions. These will be various set-theoretic representations of classifications (works by J. Gregg - Gregg, 1954, 1967 - and his followers). It turns out that the consideration of purely taxonomic (extensional) relations coincides in the limit with set-theoretic relations in Cantor's set theory (cf. Schrader, 1978).
2. Ordering deals with the ratio of intensions - archetypes with each other, the archetype and a particular individual. The question of the plurality of individuals is not raised in ordering.
There are different types of ordering.
2.1. Diagnostics allows, on the basis of the diagnostic syndrome of the individual's signs, to correlate it with a certain archetype. Attribution tasks also belong to diagnostics (Vasak, 1980). Statistical diagnostic methods are regression and factor analysis s, methods of correlation pleiades and principal components, etc.
2.2. If the diagnostic procedure cannot be explicated and only an expert can correlate an individual with an archetype, then we are talking about naming. Further, individuals named expertly can be the subject of description by objective methods (Harman, 1972, Tuldava, 1977).
2.3. Diagnostic and naming results can be compared with each other, which allows scaling (Davison, 1988). Traditionally, there are three types of scaling - quantitative, ordinal and nominal. Then each individual finds his place through measurement, ranking and naming. The choice of scaling option is determined by the practice of working with a particular group of instances.
All types of ordering can be used for reconstructions (including temporal ones) as a form of induction on an incomplete basis (Meyen, 1984, Timofeeva, 1983).
3. In contrast to taxonomy and ordering, systematization deals with both meronomic and taxonomic procedures. It is in this area that the principle of duality operates (a special - underexplored - case is the situation with fragmentation).
3.1. Formally (on the basis of operating with both taxa and merons), fragmentation should be attributed to systematization - the scope of the study of division operations (partitioning and division) of concepts (dividing and collective) and operations on these division and division operations (Chebanov, 1977, 1996; Martynenko , Chebanov, 1988, 1996). At the same time, different types of fragmentation are distinguished - hierarchical, combinative (faceted), parametric (in accordance with some parameter - for example, renumbering of fragments). Some types of fragmentation can be formally defined through operations on partitions and partitions (for example, partitions commute in combinative structures, but not in hierarchical ones), but so far the result has not been obtained in a general form.
The remaining three types of systematization - morphologization, periodization and grouping - lend themselves to a clear formal description.
3.2. Morphologization deals with the generalized structure of representatives of a certain group using collective categories. The features of the group itself as an extension, generally speaking, may not be discussed in this case, although the definiteness of the archetype uniquely defines the group and the presence of this group is implied in the course of the work (in what is its difference from ordering).
Although morphologization is fundamentally similar to ordering, it differs from the latter in that during morphologization, the archetype is presented not as a certain constant, but as something that exists in the form of a set of options. In addition, morphologization is designed to solve the problem of mereology in the understanding of St. Lesniewski (Lesniewski, 1927) - the selection of initial units, individuals (Rakhilina, 1989, 2000). In this case, it is necessary to solve, for example, issues of highlighting the boundaries of an instance, dividing a conglomerate of fragments into instances, etc. (for example, the interpretation of "War and Peace" by L.N. Tolstoy as a collection of several texts according to the nature of the distribution of lexical units - Orlov, 1970). In this case, it turns out that not one individual is singled out, but their class at once (cf. Militarev, 1983). Isolation of individuals is one of the most complex components of preclassification activity.
The task of induction on an incomplete basis in morphology is reconstruction - based on the data in the observation of details and fragments, the researcher must restore the whole, including, for specific instances given in the observation, recreate the general structure (archetype) of a class of objects or, using deciphering algorithms, extract the grammar from the corpus of texts (Meyen, 1984, Sukhotin, 1963, Timofeeva, 1983).
The forms of morphologization are diverse. The most popular now is structuralization, in which the structure is transmitted through quantitative parameters or other constants. A richer and softer description of the structure allows us to speak of meronomy (in the understanding of Meyen - Schrader), and the attitude to form as a "trap" of meaning (Chebanov, 1984) introduces into the sphere of morphology in the understanding of J.-W. Goethe (Goethe, 1957) . Synergetics makes it possible to speak about synergistic patterns of morphologization (Prigozhin, Stingers, 1986).
A special type of morphologization, in which we are talking about the morphologization of an object in real or phase space, is zoning (Kagansky, 1989), a special way of representing the results of which are maps (Rodoman, 1965, 1999). The use of anamorphoids or images without a primary basis (cartoids - Rodoman, 1999) is convenient for depicting mental (cognitive) spaces (for example, cartoids of subject areas or sciences).
3.3. Periodization can be considered as a special type of morphologization (meronomization) or zoning in time (Klein, 1991). Parametrically specified periodization gives dating. The task of induction on incomplete reason in this case is historical reconstructions. Depending on the time to which the reconstructed state belongs, these will be retrognoses (historical reconstructions in the narrow sense) and forecasts.
3.4. The last type of systematization is grouping. In this case, the researcher is interested in separating similar specimens into groups that have a fairly rich archetype. The main task of induction on an incomplete basis is extrapolation - transferring the results of a study of a part of a group (ideally, a representative characteristic set) to the whole group.
By the nature of meronomy, and partly by taxonomy, different types of grouping are distinguishable (listed in ascending order of intensionality).
3.4.1. When parameterized, a class is distinguished by the value of some parameter or a set of them, so its archetype is very poor. The set of classes in this case constitutes a partition of the set into subsets (equivalence classes).
3.4.2. In classifications, a taxon is distinguished on the basis that all specimens belonging to it have essential features. At the same time, it is advisable to follow the law of unity of the basis for dividing the concept when classifying. Operating with essential features enriches the archetype, but reduces the effectiveness of diagnostics, so that often some specimens turn out to be unclassified.
3.4.3. Typologies are usually set by a multidimensional representation of a given type of organization - a type (in the intensional understanding; a semantic invariant in the understanding of R. Jacobson - Jacobson, 1985). A type is implemented in instances directly or through type variants. Instances presenting this species organizations, constitute a type in the extensional sense. At the same time, not all instances can be unambiguously assigned to one or another type (i.e., types as extensions can intersect) due to the presence of transitional forms and forms that combine features of several types (polyradical forms, complex types). Some of the instances form single collections (not related to any type) and remain undistributed among larger extensional collections.
For some tasks, other forms of grouping are used, such as 3.4.4. ordination (in which the intension is given as a composition of several types realized in the same referents) and 3.4.5. naming (in which the variants of the intension are emanations of one essence - Chebanov, 1983a, 1996, see Table 5).
Each form of work on streamlining is associated with its own categorical apparatus, features of work that should not be absolutized, in particular because in this case it is also necessary to distinguish between what is realized and what one would like to realize. Thus, focusing on what is realized, biology can be qualified as a doctrine, and, given what should be, it can be endowed with the features of a discipline. In addition, a more detailed examination reveals the heterogeneity of the structure of the subject area. Thus, classical biology is framed as a doctrine, molecular biology gravitates toward science, and evolutionism toward discipline (see Table 3).
Special spheres are connected with the name and the fact where what is comprehended is inexpressible through the word - the subject of Kant's transcendentalism and religion. But a categorical apparatus has also been developed for them, and its relation to theory remains to be revealed.

4. Theory and theorizing.

4.1. The specifics of the theory. Consideration of examples of ordering and systematization shows that they refer to different forms of knowledge organization. At the same time, the creation of a “theory” of classification is expected, although the specificity of the theory as a form of knowledge has not been revealed. Such specifics can be fixed in the same way as the specifics of science - to talk about the use of the term "theory" in different senses, or to assign it to one form of non-empirical knowledge. The latter seems to be convenient. Then theory is a special way of working in science.
Theory involves the identification of a theoretical (different from the empirical!) Object (for example, an electron and the corresponding ? -functions), a special theoretical method (in physics - mathematical transformations), organically connected with the language of theory (mathematics), and the formulation of the result in the form of a deductive system, for which a finite number of postulates is fixed, from which, using the theoretical method, consequences are derived, estimated as results. Certain functions (ordering, predictions, explanations) are also attributed to the theory.
This is the ideal of the theory, the realization of which may be different.
Theory as a part of science has all its features (orientation towards simplicity, repeatability - work with invariants, realizability by cognitive means - the requirement of a logical conclusion, etc.). Obviously, such a structuralization of other forms of knowledge (not sciences) is not acceptable (say, for biology, the property of variability is fundamental, the individuality of an organism is important). What then can be theorizing outside of physics?

4.2. theoretical object. The object is understood as something that is opposed to the subject, to which his attention, activity can be directed (Table 5, line 13). The object, therefore, has many faces, manifesting itself in different ways depending on the specifics of the subject and his activity. Physics, on the other hand, considers the researcher to be endowed with “physical thinking”, who makes experiments, and is able to carry out only rational thinking, using formal means. Thus, not the subject is fixed, but its position (line 20), and, accordingly, the way of looking at the object, as a result of which its certain side is visible - the object. In physics, it is for objects called objects that empirical and theoretical formations are distinguished (lines 14 and 16). Without canceling such a (not entirely successful) tradition, we will describe the layers of comprehension by analogy with objects that are comprehended as objects.
It turns out that in physics theoretical and mathematical objects are almost completely identified (for example, the wave function and its mathematical properties - lines 16 and 17). At the same time, N. Bor, putting forward ideas about the structure of the atom, worked in a special way, which is abstract, but not yet formalized in such a way as to introduce a theoretical object, i.e. essentially worked with a generic (speculative in Kant's sense) object (line 15). Physicists, following the Pythagorean tradition, identify an object given in observation and described by a number. Such objects are endowed with a special status of reality (line 19).
4.3. Analogues of the object in comprehension. By analogy, one can fix (albeit not in an adequate language) layers of comprehension of other formations (artificial-natural - products, centaur objects - Shchedrovitsky, 1995 p. 437 and further; formations whose organization is comparable to that of the researcher himself - complex things and etc. - line 13).
4.4. Contrasting the empirical and the non-empirical. This opposition may be different than in physics (lines 14-19). So, in biology, it is meaningful to distinguish between an empirical and a generic product (being). The “archetypes” and “structural plans” used in biology since ancient times are representations of a generic product. Such are the archetypes in Goethe (Goethe, 1957). By formalizing them, they turn the archetype into a generic object, which increases the structuredness and formalization of consideration, but impoverishes the perception of the creature by a biologist (aesthetic, empathic moments of perception are expelled). This is the archetype in the understanding of S. W. Meyen (Meyen, 1975, 1977). Yu.A. Schreider gives an interpretation of the archetype as a theoretical object (Schreider, 1981) and even a mathematical subject. In the lack of reflection on this position, one of the sources of fruitless discussions about theoretical biology or theoretical geology is that their construction in the image of theoretical physics is incompatible with a more adequate orientation towards the study of a generic being (line 15, column V - Chebanov, 1988, cf. Vinkovetsky, 1971).

5. Variety of forms of theorizing about ordering and systematization.

Considering now the ways of working on ordering and fixing the different layers of such work, we can talk about the variety of forms of non-empirical work on “classification” (the entire field of intersection of lines 14-19 and columns II-VI). Some of them are not comprehended in principle, others exist or are being created, others are fundamentally possible.
On the other hand, there is a mixing of these forms of work themselves. So, for example, meronomization is associated with the idea of an archetype. Understood broadly, coinciding in essence with Goethe's interpretation, it gravitates toward the specifics of typology. The archetype in morphological systematics (Meyen, 1975) to a large extent turns into a poorer classificatory concept. Giving it a mathematically precise definition (Schrader, 1978) sets the way for parametric work. The same applies to the correlation of other categories (taxon and class, classification and division, etc.).
Accepting the task and taking the proposed approach, we can formulate the following statement:
A general doctrine (or theory in the broad sense) of ordering-systematizing activity (or classifications in the broad sense) is only possible as a unified one if it includes at least all of the fixed non-empirical forms of ordering work.
If any of the above forms are not taken into account, the doctrine will not be general. At the same time, it is important to keep in mind that the classification itself is not the only form of ordering (see Tables 4-5). If we are talking about many doctrines of ordering, focused on work in different subject areas (including theories of classification), not correlated with each other, none of them will be unified.
In fact, the situation is perceived differently.
Usually, when developing sufficiently powerful constructions that claim to be universal, different constructions are considered in the discussion as alternative, interpreting the same thing in different ways. Apparently, things are different. Thus, set theory (separative and collective) is a field of work with mathematical objects, measurement is a parametrization of empirical objects, database theory (Codd, 1972) is a classification of mathematical objects, which considers the relationships that appear in the “theory” (speculation) of “classification ”, understood as the unity of taxonomy and meronomy (Meyen, 1975), but focused on the study of a generic object, in the form of which a generic product is presented. Comprehension of the generic product is the purpose of the typological method of unfolding the theory in a system-activity approach (Shchedrovitsky, 1995). The classification of mathematical objects is the subject of the work of Novosibirsk specialists in mathematical methods in geology by Yu.A. Voronin and N.A. Goldin (Experience…, 1964), but it is performed primarily as a work on parameterization.
Each of these approaches is universal: using it, you can do any job of ordering. However, if the forms of work on which the approach is oriented are not realized, some problems are solved inside it unnaturally, with additional technical difficulties, the efforts expended do not justify themselves, and the same result is easier to obtain otherwise.

6. Fan matrices in ordering and systematizing activities.

As can be seen from the above, the main tool for considering theorizing about ordering-systematizing activity is Table 5.
It is built from a series of concepts (lines 2-13, 20-23, columns IX-XVI), between the members of which correspondences are established. In a sense, these are synonymous series of concepts. Therefore, it is quite clear that if such axes are considered as orthogonal, then the diagonal elements will receive an obvious interpretation (in Table 5, elements 14-VII, 15-VI, 16-V, etc.).
However, when the tables constructed in this way begin to correlate with empirical data, it turns out that there is not always material to fill in the diagonal elements, while non-diagonal elements are clearly presented. Paying attention to the nature of such off-diagonal elements, one can identify a certain logic of their construction and, based on this, begin to predict other off-diagonal elements. Since such work is based on the deployment of parallel axes like a fan (in this case, rows 13-II, 13-III, 13-IV, 13-V, 13-VI, 13-VII and 14-VIII, 15-VIII, 16-VIII , 17-VIII, 18-VIII, 19-VIII), then the name “fan matrices” was proposed for such tables (Kordonsky, Chebanov, 1996).
A similar technique was independently developed by S.G. Kordonsky (Kordonsky, 1995, 2000, 2001) and D.M. , 2006; see also Chebanov, 2002, 2007a). Other examples of the use of this technique are known.
In all these cases, fan matrices are used to organize very heterogeneous and voluminous material, moreover, analyzed at several levels of detail. Therefore, they can be considered as a working tool in creating a general doctrine of ordering and systematizing activity.

7. Application and perspectives.

Summing up, we can formulate a number of statements that seem useful for creating a single general doctrine of ordering and prevent some fruitless disputes:

If some “classification” structure is proposed, then it should be clarified: 1) whether it is covered by the proposed doctrine and, if so, which of the listed types of work it includes; 2) whether the proposed structure is comparable in generality and volume with the described doctrine, and if so, what is their difference (in principles, in divisions and names, in details). Depending on the type of difference, how doctrines can be related; 3) whether the proposed construction covers a wider area than the described doctrine, and if so, what new areas are included in it.
The described doctrine is presented as an outline (for a more detailed exposition, see Chebanov, 1996, 2001). Each of its points can be developed or questioned, but it is important to understand whether the design is meaningful, whether the design as a whole is acceptable. Some of the described forms of work are created, others die off. At this stage, it is not possible to consider all aspects of the different types of work.
It is important to bear in mind that none of the fixed forms of work is almost never realized in its pure form, but is the focal point of culture, behind which stands its own tradition. The researcher, ordering a specific material, should not be limited to one standard, but keep in mind that several dozen types of such work are being implemented, but an infinite multitude is conceivable (see Tables 1, 2, 4, 5). Choosing what to create is his business, which must be carried out in a way that is most adequate to the material.
There is a parallelism between the categories under consideration, indicating the possibility of creating a unified doctrine of ordering, the blocks of which (identification of an object and its analogue, a “theoretical object” and its analogue, their structure, identification of taxa and their analogues, establishing the number and dynamics of taxa, similarity measures, etc.) etc.) are the same for different forms of work, but for each of them they take on a state adequate to the subject specifics (for an analysis example, see Chebanov, 1996, 2001; cf. the approach to the analysis of geological material - Chebanov, 1986b). The structure of the doctrine with fixed states of blocks and the removal of blocks in the zero state will generate the structure of the corresponding concept (theory) of ordering (classification).
From the standpoint of the proposed doctrine, the reasons for the complexity of some "classification" problems, in particular in biology, are revealed. Thus, developing the idea of a natural system, A. A. Lyubishchev (Lyubishchev, 1923) considered the periodic table of chemical elements as a representative of such a system, understanding the natural system as a parametric one. Such a formulation of the question can be interpreted as the identification of an empirical and mathematical product (for Lyubishchev - an object; see Table 5, line 19, column V) in a living organism. But as a structure in which such an identity is implemented, a parameter is taken (line 7, column VII), which is inadequate for the tasks of ordering organisms (there must be at least mathematical objects - line 17 column V). Due to the same circumstances, the periodic table is not universal either, because to describe the stability of nuclei, other parameters are needed than the characteristics of electron shells (this is one of the aspects of the intermediate position of chemistry between sciences and teachings - see Table 2). These examples illustrate the appearance of unsolvable questions when combining representations from different focal points in one construction without creating a categorical apparatus for correlating such focal points that is adequate to the problem.

Literature

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Vinkovetsky Ya. A. Geology and general theory of the evolution of nature. L., 1971.
All-Union Conference “Classification Theory and Data Analysis.”. Abstracts. Ch. 1-2. Novosibirsk, 1981.
Galileo G. Dialogue about two major systems world // Galileo G. Selected works in two volumes. T. 1. M., 1964.
Goethe I.-V. Selected works in natural science. M., 1957.
Davison M. Multidimensional scaling: data visualization methods. M., 1988.
Dionysius the Areopagite. About the heavenly hierarchy. St. Petersburg, 1997.
Kagansky V.L. Zoning as a division of continuum subject environments // Classification in modern science. Novosibirsk, 1989.
Klein L.S. Archaeological typology. L., 1991.
Kozhara V.L. classification problem. Ruk. dep. in VINITI 5.11.84, No. 7149-84 Dep.
Kozhara V.L. classification movement. Borok, 2006.
Kordonsky S.G. A variant of the calculation of administrative weights in the executive and representative hierarchies of power // Kentavr, 1995, no. 2-3.
Kordonsky S.G. Markets of power: Administrative markets of the USSR and Russia. M., 2000.
Kordonsky S.G. Cycles of activity and ideal objects. M., 2001.
Kordonsky S.G., Chebanov S.V. Fan Matrices as a Data Representation Model // Chebanov S.V. Logical foundations of linguistic typology / Chebanov S.V. Collected Works. Vol. 1 Vilnius, VLANI, 1996.
Kudrin B.I. Introduction to technology. Tomsk, 1991.
Lyubishchev A.A. On the form of the natural system of organisms // Proceedings of the Biological Research Institute at Perm University, 1923, ser. 2, no. 2.
Meyen S.V. Systematics and formalization // Biology and modern scientific knowledge (materials for the conference). Part 1. M., 1975.
Meyen S.V. Taxonomy and meronomy // Questions of methodology in geological sciences. Kyiv, 1977.
Meyen S.V. Principles of historical reconstructions in biology // System and evolution. M., 1984.
Meyen S.V., Schreider Yu.A. Methodological aspects of the theory of classification // Questions of Philosophy, 1976, No. 12.
Martynenko G.Ya., Chebanov S.V. Classification tasks of stylemetry // Uchenye zapiski TSU, vol. 827, Tartu, 1988.
Martynenko G.Ya., Chebanov S.V. Stilemetry // Applied Linguistics. Textbook. St. Petersburg, 1996.
Militarev V.Yu. Categories and principles of the natural science theory of classification // Theory and Methodology of Biological Classifications. M., 1983.
Naishul V.A. Atlas of the Primer of Urban Rus'. ?-version. 2006. // http://www.inme.ru/docs/atlas.pdf
Experience in the analysis and construction of geological classifications based on the concepts of finite mathematics. Novosibirsk, 1964.
Orlov Yu.K. On the statistical structure of messages that are optimal for human perception // NTI, ser. 2. 1970, No. 8.
Prigozhin I., Stengers I. Order from chaos M., 1986.
Rakhilina E.V. On the foundations of linguistic mereology // Semiotics and informatics, 1989, no. thirty.
Rakhilina E.V. Cognitive analysis of subject names: semantics and compatibility. M., 2000.
Rodoman B.B. Logical and cartographic forms of zoning and the tasks of their study // Izvestiya AN SSSR, ser. Geogr., 1965, No. 4.
Rodoman B.B. Territorial areas and networks. Essays on theoretical geography. Smolensk, 1999.
Smirnova E.E. ... There were no complaints about the professional part, but the printing of horoscopes was incriminated // Telescope: observations of the everyday life of Petersburgers. 2006. No. 1.
Sukhotin B.V. Algorithms for linguistic deciphering // Problems of Structural Linguistics. M., Nauka, 1963.
Timofeeva M.K. On the method of inductive reconstruction of grammars. Novosibirsk, 1983.
Tuldava Yu.A. On the problem of comparing subjective and objective characteristics of style // Uchenye zapiski TSU, vol. 420, Tartu, 1977.
Wilber K. The Eye of the Spirit: An Integral Vision for a Slightly Crazed World. M., 2002.
Harman G. Modern factorial analysis. M., 1972.
Chebanov S.V. Theory of classification and methods of classification // NTI, Ser.2 1977, No. 10.
Chebanov S.V. Systematic and integrated approach to economic classifications// Scientific-practical conference "Economics and improvement of management based on a systematic approach." Volgograd, 1983a.
Chebanov S.V. Unity of theorizing about ways of ordering // Theory and Methodology of Biological Classifications. M., Nauka, 1983b.
Chebanov S.V. The idea of form in natural science and the foundations of general morphology // Orgaanilise vormi teoria. Tartu, Tartu Riiklik Ulikool, 1984.
Chebanov S.V. Complexity in biostratigraphy // System approach in geology (Theoretical and applied aspects). Part 1., M., 1986a.
Chebanov S.V. Classification of the bases for the classification of geological classifications // System approach in geology (Theoretical and applied aspects). Part 1. M., 1986b.
Chebanov S.V. Logical foundations of linguistic typology / Chebanov S.V. Collected Works. Vol. 1 Vilnius, VLANI, 1996.
Chebanov S.V. Logical-semiotic foundations of classifications in linguistics. Diss….d. philol. n. St. Petersburg, 2001.
Chebanov S.V. Monument of the era as a communicative failure // Russian Journal, January 30, 2002. http://old.russ.ru/ist_sovr/20020131_cheb.html
Chebanov S.V. Holy Rus', I-ching and rank distributions. // General and applied cenology. 2007a, No. 3.
Chebanov S.V. To what extent did Linnaeus not classify? // Linnean collection. M., Moscow State University. 2007b.
Chebanov S.V. Types of interdisciplinarity // International scientific-practical conference "Roerich heritage". T. III. East - West on the banks of the Neva. Part 2. St. Petersburg, Roerich Center of St. Petersburg State University, 2007c.
Shreider Yu.A. Theory of Sets and Theory of Systems // System Research. 1978. M., 1978.
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Jacobson R. Selected Works. M., 1985.
Chebanov S.V. Theoretical biology in biocentrism // Lectures in Theoretical Biology. Tallinn, 1988.
Codd E.F. Relational completeness of data base sublanguage // Courant Computer Sience Symposia 6. Date base systems. N.-Y., 1972.
Gregg J.R. The language of taxonomy. N.-Y., 1954.
Gregg J.R. Finite Linnaean structures // The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 1967, v. 29, no. 2.
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Vasak P. Methody urcovani autorstvi. Prague, 1980.

Tab. 1. Activities like various options implementation of different methodological approaches.

Implementation
An approach

Natur-philosophical

philosophy

mythology

comprehension

Logico-epistemic

cognitive intuition

art as a form of knowledge

his version

systemic

systems approach

System-activity

methodology

activity samples

Complex

activity

?

synthesis of the arts

?

spiritual integratism*

?

specific form
regulatory
comprehension

Sciences H6

scientific teachings

scientific disciplines

Mechanics
thermodynamics
electrodynamics

biology
geology
geography
sociology
linguistics

pedagogy
medicine
aesthetics
art criticism
cooking
policy

Option No. 2611663

When completing tasks with a short answer, enter in the answer field the number that corresponds to the number of the correct answer, or a number, a word, a sequence of letters (words) or numbers. The answer should be written without spaces or any additional characters. Separate the fractional part from the whole decimal point. Units of measurement are not required. The answers to tasks 1-20 are a number, or a sequence of numbers, or a word (phrase). Record answers without spaces, commas, or other extra characters. By completing task 29, you can show your knowledge and skills on the content that is more attractive to you. For this purpose, choose only one of the proposed statements (29.1-29.5).

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Write down the missing word in the diagram.

Answer:

Find a concept that generalizes to all the other concepts in the series below. Write down this word (phrase).

Multi-party system, program variability, variety of media positions, leaderboard competition, political pluralism, difference of political views.

Answer:

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to the concept of "social control".

1) encouragement

2) punishment

3) social mobility

4) social norm

5) social sanction

6) social stratification

Find two terms that "fall out" from the general series, and write them down in the numbers under which they are indicated.

Answer:

Choose the correct judgments about science and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) Science develops and theoretically systematizes objective knowledge about nature, society, and man.

2) A component of scientific knowledge is ethical assessments of social phenomena.

3) Science is represented by a set of industries and research organizations.

4) Science is able to predict the consequences of human transformative activity.

5) Science, unlike other forms of spiritual culture, is able to have an emotional impact on a person.

Answer:

Establish a correspondence between individual sanctions and types of sanctions: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

A	B	IN	G	D	E

Answer:

Popular actor and TV host own funds made a black-and-white film about the fate of his generation. Critics attributed this work to elitist art. Select the characteristics of the work of elite culture from the list below and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) commercial nature

3) the attention of critics and connoisseurs

4) use of special effects

5) attraction of movie stars

6) the enormous interest of the audience

Answer:

Choose the correct judgments about economic growth and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) GDP growth always indicates economic growth in the country.

2) The availability of higher quality natural resources is both a condition and an indicator of extensive economic growth.

3) The need to attract additional workers indicates extensive economic growth.

4) Scientific organization of labor is an indicator of intensive economic growth.

5) Intensive economic growth can be judged by the improvement of the professional skills of workers.

Answer:

Establish a correspondence between the signs and the economic system: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

A	B	IN	G	D

Answer:

Find measures in the list below to help reduce inflation. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) increase in government spending on social programs

2) devaluation of the national currency

3) withdrawal of "extra" money by the Central Bank

4) refusal to raise salaries and pensions

5) the transition to natural exchange instead of money

6) issue of money

Answer:

The graph shows the change in demand for inexpensive kitchen furniture in the respective market: the demand curve has shifted from position D into position D 1 (on the chart R- the price of the product, Q- quantity of goods).

Which of the following factors can cause such a change? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) improvement of kitchen furniture production technology

2) cost reduction for kitchen furniture manufacturers

3) reduction of taxes from small furniture productions

4) increase in the volume of construction of new municipal housing

5) fashion for inexpensive eco-friendly kitchen sets

Answer:

Choose the correct judgments about ethnic groups and interethnic relations and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) One of the ways to prevent interethnic conflicts in a democratic society is the compact settlement of people of one nationality within a multinational state.

2) Ethnic communities are tribes, nationalities, nations.

3) One of the ways to harmonize interethnic relations is the development of cultural ties between peoples.

4) All ethnic communities necessarily have their own statehood.

5) One of the ways to prevent interethnic conflicts in a democratic society is to ensure the rights and freedoms of all citizens, regardless of their nationality.

Answer:

Class teachers asked students in grade 11 and their parents the question: “In your opinion, which of the following statements most accurately describes the relationship between parents and children?”. The results of the survey (in % of the number of respondents) are presented in the diagram.

Find in the list of conclusions that can be drawn from the diagram, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) Among parents, the opinion that parents and children can never understand each other is more popular than the opinion that parents and children understand each other, there is no reason for contradiction.

2) Half of the interviewed parents believe that parents and children understand each other, there are no grounds for contradictions.

3) Among students, the opinion that mutual understanding requires joint efforts of both parents and children is more popular than the opinion that parents and children will never be able to understand each other.

4) Equal proportions of the respondents experienced difficulty in answering.

5) Equal proportions of students and parents believe that mutual understanding requires joint efforts of both parents and children.

Answer:

Choose the correct judgments about the political system of society and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) The political system of society determines the possibilities for the socio-political activities of citizens and organizations.

2) The composition of the political system of society may include public organizations.

3) The political system regulates the political process.

4) Political scientists distinguish between majoritarian and proportional political systems.

5) Social norms (legal, political, moral, etc.) refer to the institutional (organizational) subsystem of the political system.

Answer:

Establish a correspondence between the issues and the subjects of power of the Russian Federation, to which they relate: for each position given in the first column, select the appropriate position from the second column.

A	B	IN	G	D

Answer:

State Z regularly holds elections to the legislature on an alternative basis. What signs will allow us to conclude that a democratic political regime has been established in state Z? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) The Legislative Assembly makes laws.

2) The policy pursued by the state depends on the results of the elections and on the preferences of the voters.

3) Citizens have the right to freely express their thoughts, including criticizing the government, the socio-economic order.

4) The head of state is the president.

5) The President is elected by the Legislative Assembly.

6) Citizens have the right to establish independent communities or organizations, including political parties.

Answer:

Which of the following provisions relate to the fundamentals of the constitutional order of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) republican form of government

2) variety of forms of ownership

3) planned economic system

4) the dominance of the judiciary over the legislative and executive

5) establishment of the state religion

Answer:

Find examples of civil wrongs in the list below and indicate the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) non-fulfillment by the publishing house of the terms of the contract with the author of the novel

2) taking hostages in the school building

3) students smoking in the university building

4) violation of fire safety rules

5) dumping of production waste into the river

6) non-payment of a loan to a bank

Answer:

Establish a correspondence between legal forms and types legal entities: for each position given in the first column, match the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

A	B	IN	G	D

Answer:

Auto mechanic Roman found new job by specialty. For conclusion employment contract he brought documents military registration And work book. What else according to Labor Code RF Novel must present to the employer? Write down the numbers under which the relevant documents are indicated. Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) certificate of registration of ownership of the dwelling

2) insurance certificate of state pension insurance

3) passport of a citizen of the Russian Federation

4) tax notice

5) diploma of specialized education

6) an extract from the financial and personal account

Answer:

Read the text below with a number of words missing. Choose from the proposed list of words that you want to insert in place of the gaps.

“American political scientist M.G. Hermann made an attempt to highlight the factors that influence the nature of the political ____(A). These include: political ____ (B), reaction to pressure and stress, ___ (C), style, previous experience, circumstances in which a person found himself in a leadership position. The study of these factors allows us to give a relatively complete characterization of the politician.

In the public mind, a certain ___ (D) of this or that political figure is formed, called his image. It can occur ____ (D), without special efforts of the actor or his supporters. However, ____(E) is often created through the efforts of a politician and his support group. At the same time, attention is drawn to those personality traits that correspond to the expectations of the masses, and those personality traits that can be perceived negatively are masked.

The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word can only be used once.

Choose sequentially one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.

List of terms:

The table below lists the letters that represent the missing words. Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

A	B	IN	G	D	E

Answer:

Based on social science knowledge, explain the meaning of the concept of "credit". What are the reasons that prevent getting a loan from a bank are mentioned in the text? What additional sources of funding are identified in the text (specify two sources)?

()

What characteristic feature (problem) of small business is called by the authors? What two explanations for the existence of this problem do they indicate?

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

As is known, one of characteristic features small businesses is the problem of their financing. As a rule, they have an insufficient amount of start-up capital and experience constant difficulties in accumulating Money and their investment in the business. One of the solutions to this problem is financial support from banks. Among the main reasons preventing obtaining a loan from a bank, 42% of the interviewed entrepreneurs highlight the problem

collateral and guarantees, 31% - high interest rates, 26% - problems with registration. 42% of respondents cited the lack of access to relevant information as the main reason preventing them from obtaining a loan from entrepreneurship support funds. At the same time, almost 70% noted that they need real state support.

First of all, entrepreneurs associate their expectations with the reduction of the tax burden, the creation of conditions for access to financial resources, and the simplification of reporting. However, most believe that the likelihood of receiving such assistance is low. In our opinion, within the framework of state support for the system of lending to small businesses, it is necessary to ensure a reduction in the interest rate. In addition, 55% of respondents consider it necessary to provide state guarantees for loans. At the same time, 40% of respondents believe that the volume of state guarantees for loans to small and medium-sized businesses should be about 50% of the loan amount.

A common problem is the lack of certainty of the requirements of the legislation, which creates conditions for their arbitrary interpretation. We believe that the interference of law enforcement agencies in business activities is unjustifiably high, regardless of the type of activity, it is necessary to legally limit their interference. In our opinion, the most important area is also financial and credit support for small businesses.

(according to L. A. Mosina, Yu. S. Koroleva))

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Name three measures that the authors of the text indicate as necessary to support small businesses. Based on the knowledge of the social science course, give two measures to support small businesses that are not listed in the text.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

As you know, one of the characteristic features of small businesses is the problem of their financing. As a rule, they have an insufficient amount of start-up capital and experience constant difficulties in accumulating funds and investing them in a business. One of the solutions to this problem is financial support from banks. Among the main reasons preventing obtaining a loan from a bank, 42% of the interviewed entrepreneurs highlight the problem

(according to L. A. Mosina, Yu. S. Koroleva))

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The state plays a certain role in the socialization of individuals of any age. Using social science knowledge and the facts of public life, indicate any three tasks that a democratic state can solve as an agent of socialization, and the corresponding means that it uses.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

Socialization goes through stages coinciding with the so-called life cycles. They mark the most important milestones in a person’s biography, which may well serve as qualitative stages in the formation of a social “I”: admission to a university (student life cycle), marriage (family life cycle), choice of profession and employment (labor cycle), military service (army cycle), retirement (pension cycle).

Life cycles are associated with change social roles, with the acquisition of a new status, the rejection of old habits, environment, friendly contacts, a change in the usual way of life.

Each time, moving to a new step, entering a new cycle, a person has to retrain a lot. This process falls into two stages, which have received special names in sociology.

Weaning from old values, norms, roles and rules of behavior is called desocialization.

The principle according to which the development of the personality throughout life is ascending and is based on the consolidation of the past, is immutable. But the personality traits that were formed earlier are not unshakable. Resocialization is the assimilation of new values, roles, skills instead of the old, insufficiently assimilated or outdated ones. Resocialization covers many activities - from classes to improve reading skills to professional retraining of workers. Psychotherapy is also one of the forms of resocialization. Under its influence, people try to understand their conflicts and change their behavior based on this understanding.

Desocialization and resocialization are two sides of the same process, namely adult, or continued, socialization.

In childhood and adolescence, while an individual is brought up in a family and school, as a rule, no drastic changes occur in his life, except for the divorce or death of his parents, the continuation of education in a boarding school or orphanage. His socialization proceeds smoothly and represents the accumulation of new knowledge, values, norms. The first major change occurs only with the entry into adulthood.

Although the process of socialization continues at this age, it changes significantly. Now desocialization and resocialization come to the fore. Sometimes a person finds himself in such extreme conditions, where desocialization goes so deep that it turns into the destruction of the moral foundations of the individual, and resocialization is superficial. It is not able to restore all the wealth of lost values, norms and roles.

The attitude of Russians to key values (closed-ended question, the proportion of respondents who

positive feelings), %

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To reveal the main idea(s) you have formulated, give reasoning and conclusions using social science knowledge (relevant concepts, theoretical provisions).

To illustrate your main idea(s), theoretical positions, reasoning and conclusions, give at least two social facts/examples from various sources (public life (including media reports), personal social experience (including including books read, movies watched), from various academic subjects.

Each cited fact/example must be formulated in detail and confirm the indicated main idea, theoretical position, reasoning or conclusion/be clearly connected with them. In terms of content, the examples should not be of the same type (they should not duplicate each other).

29.1 Philosophy:"A man must unshakably believe that the incomprehensible is comprehensible, otherwise he will not be able to explore anything." (Johann Wolfgang Goethe)

29.2 Economy:"Politics has its own invisible hand, acting in the opposite direction to that in which the invisible hand of the market operates." (Milton Friedman)

29.3 Sociology, social psychology:“We love people not so much for the good they have done us, but for the good we have done for them.” (Lev Tolstoy)

29.4 Political science"No government can truly consider itself safe where there is no powerful opposition." (Benjamin Disraeli)

29.5 Jurisprudence“If I had to evaluate two provisions: “do not do iniquity” and “do not endure iniquity”, according to their practical importance for the community, then I would say that the rule “do not endure iniquity” should come first, and “do not him" - on the second. (Rudolf Iering)

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Finish testing, check answers, see solutions.

Dialectical contradiction- a contradiction, the extreme members of which, according to the content of thought, are entities with opposite content. The dialectical nature of the contradiction is predetermined by the course of the “one” being, which emphasizes the manifestation of the initial, basic qualities first, and then those that oppose the basic ones and cause destabilization of the being of the one, disidentification, as conditions for the transition of the basic state to a new, more developed level.

Struggle_opposites

Dialectical contradiction is the driving force of all processes of the Universe.

The moving force is formed by the "struggle" of opposites, which have quite specific forms.

It can be a pair of particles with electrically opposite charges, a pair space objects, attracted to each other by opposite gravitational forces, a social pair: "individual - individual", "class - class", "state - state", each of the opposites of which seeks to satisfy its needs to the detriment, as a rule, of the ability to satisfy the needs of its antipode .

There is nothing in the world but dialectical systems of the unity of opposites. Each of the opposites of a dialectical system can consist of many other dialectical systems.

It is clear that all dialectical systems in the world have one form or another, and this or that degree of interconnection and interdependence.

But their division into pairs is not just a convenient convention invented to describe those general patterns of development that are inherent in all natural processes, but a convention that reflects the most characteristic form with the highest degree of interdependence of really existing opposites.

The development of a dialectical system is the development of a concrete process of nature, the basis of which is this dialectical system.

To understand the essence of any natural process is possible only by finding the main dialectical system that determines the essence of this process.

A dialectical system can be both in a state of equilibrium, determined by the equality of its opposites, and out of a state of equilibrium, when, under the influence of external or internal processes, the opposites cease to balance each other.

The non-equilibrium of a dialectical system is a dialectical contradiction - a term that, on the one hand, reflects the "abnormality" of the state of the system, on the other hand, that this "abnormality" is the driving force behind the development of specific processes of nature.

The dialectical contradiction is eliminated by the dialectical "struggle" aimed at restoring the balance lost by the system.

For example, if the fluid levels in communicating vessels cease to be equal, a "struggle" is born in the form of fluid movement aimed at leveling the levels.

The greater the non-equilibrium of the system, the more intense the "struggle", the greater the speed of the corresponding process of nature, which is easy to understand from the above example.

Social dialectical systems have their own specifics of development.

This specificity lies in the fact that a non-social dialectical system leaving the state of equilibrium immediately, automatically gives rise to a “struggle” aimed at restoring the balance. The birth of "struggle" in social systems is always mediated by individual or social consciousness.

For example, if there is a violation of homeostasis (also a kind of balance, balance) of the individual's body, and any need is born, then the "struggle" in the form of activity aimed at satisfying the need can arise only after the individual realizes the born need and realizes the ways and ways to satisfy it.

Approximately the same thing happens if one social class is exploited by another class. The struggle of the exploited against the exploiters can arise only after the exploited become aware of the fact of exploitation, and realize the ways and means of eliminating those production relations through which exploitation is organized.

If the fact of exploitation is realized only by the exploiters, then in this case there is a “struggle” in the form of propaganda of the exploiters, where the existing relations of production are presented as the height of perfection, and more democratic forms of organization of society with a more equitable distribution of income are presented as dangerous, leading to chaos, forms (3).

Dialectical systems can take the form where one of the opposites is a certain process, and the other is a dialectical form of development of this process.

For example, the system of concepts "mine - not mine", which is the first system of concepts of the emerging individual consciousness, is a process of comparison by the individual of everything that is combined by the concept of "mine" with everything that is combined by the concept of "not mine", where the dialectical the form of development of this process is the concept of "I" (6).

With the rebirth of the "individual-individual" system into the "individual-individual" system, the essence of the development of which is the development of legal relations between individuals, and then between all subjects of law, a dialectical form of development of this process is born - state power, which initially could not have any other forms, except for the form of patronage of a mother who realized (in the “struggle” of the system of concepts “my child is not my child”) her motherhood to her children.

In the process of the historical development of human society, with the development, improvement of the means of production, with the improvement of forms of ownership of the means of production, with the development of public consciousness, legal relations between the subjects of law of state formations change, changing legal relations outgrow their dialectical form - state power, requiring qualitative changes in this form. What periodically happens, more often - through revolutions, less often - through evolutionary socio-economic transformations. But no matter what changes state power undergoes, starting from its very first - matriarchal - form and ending with modern states, the essence of this phenomenon remains unchanged: state power remains a dialectical form of development of legal relations between the subjects of law forming this state (5).

Often the formation of the equilibrium of dialectical systems occurs through the formation of the equilibrium of the dialectical systems that form it.

For example, the market - an institution for the exchange of goods - forms its equilibrium, where demand is balanced by supply at the level of objective prices, at the level of equivalent exchange, by balancing the systems "buyer - buyer", "seller - seller" and "buyer - seller".

The dialectic of the formation of this balance is as follows.

Each participant in the exchange, striving for the maximum benefit, remains, however, satisfied with the exchange if his benefit is equal to that of his competitors.

The "struggle" of buyers for equality of positions forms the demand of the market for goods, where all identical goods have equal prices for all sellers and for all buyers.

The “struggle” of sellers generates overflows of funds from less profitable types of entrepreneurship to more profitable ones, turning average specific profits into average market ones, and forms the market supply at prices equal to average specific production costs, plus average market profit per unit of production costs.

The "struggle" of buyers with sellers for satisfaction with the price of the goods forms a correspondence between supply and demand at the price level equal to the average specific production costs of the goods, plus the average market profit per unit of goods, that is, at the price level equal to the average specific production prices of the goods.

Thus, the “struggle” of each participant in the exchange for their own benefit forms the equality of benefits, forms an equivalent exchange, the source of which was sought for more than two thousand years inside goods in the form of labor costs for the production of goods or their utility, and it turned out to be the equality of the positions of competing subjects of exchange.

The desire of dialectical systems for balance is a pattern that has no exception.

But in order for the pendulum moving towards the point of equilibrium to reach its goal, nothing should interfere with it.

The dispute between market fundamentalists, who believe that the market itself will “settle everything”, and therefore it should not be touched, and planners, who believe that everything needs to be regulated, is theoretically resolved quite simply - the market should be regulated in the direction of eliminating the causes that interfere with the operation of the mechanism self-regulation.

In order to put this theory into practice, one must know the conditions successful work this mechanism.

If we systematize the whole variety of conditions for the formation of an equilibrium market, then this variety can be reduced to two main conditions.

The first - sufficient to give rise to competition, the number of subjects of "struggle".

The second is the absence of any privileges in this "struggle" for some subjects of exchange.

Violation of at least one of these conditions gives rise to the possibility for the corresponding subjects of exchange to shift the exchange from the equilibrium point in their favor. As a result, the subjective value of the value is born, which can differ many times from its objective value.

The labor market, where labor is exchanged for wages, takes place in every independent enterprise. Labor exchange, where the ability to work is exchanged for workplace, there is a “front door” to the labor market.

A blatant violation of the equilibrium condition of the labor market is the use of hired labor.

The employer-owner of the enterprise, having a monopoly right on the labor market of his enterprise, determines how the cost of labor employees, and the value of one's own labor naturally enjoys this right. He overstates the value of his own labor by understating the value of the labor of employees.

That is, the employer appropriates part of the cost of labor of employees in the form of a subjective superstructure over the objective cost of his labor.

So, extremely simply, the casket of capitalist exploitation opens (5).

It is theoretically easy to fulfill the conditions for the functioning of an equilibrium labor market, where the objective values of the cost of labor of members of the production team are formed. For this, there is already a theoretical justification, and even practical testing. All that remains is to organize a political force capable of putting the production relations of market socialism into practice.

The essence of subjective dialectics is manifested in various interactions of an individual with the surrounding reality, including interactions of individuals with each other.

A subjective dialectical contradiction is formed when an individual does not adequately reflect the surrounding reality, where intellectual conflicts can arise in the form of formal logical contradictions, or in the form of conflicts between the individual and reality itself in the form, for example, of an incorrect assessment by the individual of his strength to overcome any obstacle.

Subjective contradictions can be formed on the basis of various differences between individuals: intellectual, moral, religious; or even on the basis of different interpretations of the same term. These contradictions are also called individual dialectical contradictions.

Subjective contradictions can be formed on the basis of inexplicable antipathy, and the disappearance of contradictions can occur on the basis of the establishment of sympathy.

Subjective contradictions can be formed on the basis of the selfish interests of individuals, when one individual tries to satisfy his needs at the expense of infringing on the satisfaction of the needs of another individual, which occurs in the process of deceit, exploitation, robbery, etc.

When like-minded people interact, then in the absence of selfish interests and antipathy, the contradictions between them approach zero, which is the basis for the formation of various kinds of groups of like-minded people. Political parties, classes and nations are formed on the basis of unanimity. The split of parties, classes and nations occurs on the basis of the formation of intergroup contradictions and unanimity within each of the groups. But these are no longer subjective (individual), but social (group) contradictions. The laws of their development are distinguished by the fact that individual contradictions are resolved through individual consciousness, and social contradictions - through public consciousness, which is formed by the leader of a particular group of like-minded people.

Formal-logical contradictions can also be considered dialectical contradictions, meaning that these contradictions - giving rise to a conflict between the individual who knows objective reality and the reality being studied - make the individual move towards a more accurate reflection of reality.

Literature

1.Lenin V.I. Complete Works, vol. 29, pp. 316, 317.
2.Tverdokhlebov G.A. Dialectics market equilibrium. "Economy and Finance" No. 20, 2006, "Legal Research Foundation";
3.Tverdokhlebov G.A. Driving forces of social progress. "Federation" No. 9, 2006, "Legal Research Foundation";
4.Tverdokhlebov G.A. Dialectics of the evolution of the animal world;
5.Tverdokhlebov G.A. The birth of legal relations and state power. "Combined Science Magazine» No. 13, 2006, Legal Research Foundation;
6.Tverdokhlebov G.A. Physiology of thinking. "United Scientific Journal" No. 21, 2006, "Legal Research Foundation";

Provisions derived from purely
logical means, when comparing
with reality turn out
completely empty.
A. Einstein

How to properly analyze and classify data? Why do we need graphs and charts?

Workshop Lesson

Goal of the work. Learn to classify and analyze data obtained from the text.

Work plan. 1. Analyze the text in order to determine the essential properties of the subject being referred to. 2. Structuring the content of the text in order to highlight the classes of objects that are being discussed. 3. Understand the role of logical diagrams, graphs, diagrams for understanding the material being studied, establishing logical connections, systematization.

Analyze the text. To do this, you need to mentally define the subject in the text - essential. Select, divide it into its component parts in order to find individual elements, signs, aspects of this subject.

Ivan Kramskoy. D. I. Mendeleev

Whose portraits of systematizing scientists would you add to this series?

PORTRAIT OF BALL LIGHTNING. “A portrait of a mysterious natural phenomenon - ball lightning was made by specialists from the main geophysical observatory named after. A. I. Voeikov, using the services of a computer and., Forensic methods. The sketch of the mysterious stranger was compiled on the basis of data published in the press over three centuries, the results of research surveys and reports from eyewitnesses from different countries.

What secrets did the soaring clot of energy tell scientists?

It is mostly seen during thunderstorms. At all times there were four forms of ball lightning: sphere, oval, disk, rod. The generation of atmospheric electricity, naturally, mostly arose in the air. However, according to American surveys, lightning can be seen with equal frequency and settled on various objects - telegraph poles, trees, houses. The dimensions of the amazing companion of thunderstorms are from 15 to 40 cm. Color? Three-quarters of the eyewitnesses followed the sparkling balls of red, yellow and pink.

The life of a clot of electrical plasma is truly a moth, as a rule, within five seconds. Longer than this period, but not more than 30 seconds, it was seen by up to 36% of eyewitnesses. Almost always, her death was the same - she spontaneously exploded, sometimes bumping into various obstacles. "Collective portraits" made by observers of different times and peoples coincided.

If, after reading the text, you managed to answer the questions about what the text says, what are the main features, elements, sides, properties of the subject of reasoning, then you have analyzed it. In this case, the subject, the main content of the text is the idea of ball lightning. Properties of ball lightning - its appearance: size, shape, color, as well as life time, behavioral features.

Based on the analysis of the text, determine its logical structure. Suggest forms of work with this text for its assimilation, memorization, use it as an interesting, unusual material in your future academic work- in discussions, speeches.

CLUE. You can draw up a plan for this text, its summary, theses (generalizations and conclusions that you consider to be the main thoughts of the text). It is useful to highlight what is new to you, unfamiliar in the material. You can also compose logic diagram material. To do this, after analyzing the text, highlight the information that is significant to you, try to combine it into groups, show the connections between these groups.

The use of tables, graphs, diagrams helps us to organize the study of natural science subjects. Suppose we have data on average monthly daily temperatures for one year for St. Petersburg and Sochi. It is required to analyze and systematize this material in order to identify any patterns.

Let's present a disparate data set in the form of a table, then in the form of a graph and diagram (Fig. 5, 6). Find patterns in temperature distribution. Answer the questions:

What are the features of temperature distribution by months in different cities? How do these distributions differ?
What is the reason for the processes that lead to such a distribution?
Did the systematization of the material with the help of a graph, diagram help you complete the task?

Average monthly daily temperatures for one year for St. Petersburg and Sochi

Rice. 5. Graph of the course of average monthly daily temperatures for one year for St. Petersburg and Sochi

Rice. 6. Diagram: average monthly daily temperatures for one year in the cities of St. Petersburg and Sochi

Important steps to mastering the methods of scientific knowledge are:

Logical analysis of the text.
Drawing up a plan, diagrams, highlighting the structure of the material.
Note-taking of the text or writing theses.
Isolation of new knowledge and its use in discussions, speeches, in solving new tasks and problems.

Literature for additional reading

Einstein A. Without formulas / A. Einstein; comp. K. Kedrov; per. from English. - M.: Thought. 2003.
Methodology of science and scientific progress. - Novosibirsk: Science. 1981.
Feirabend P. Selected works on the methodology of science / P. Feirabend. - M.: Progress, 1986

POLITICAL SCIENCE. Lectures for university students.

The content of the lecture material introduces the main ideas, concepts, theories and approaches in the study of political science. The fundamental principles in the construction of lecture material are complexity, systematic, consistency.
The course of lectures is presented by 9 topics. Each topic contains information that allows you to get a real amount of knowledge, in accordance with the requirements of the standard.

TOPIC 1. POLITICAL SCIENCE AND ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE

POLITICAL SCIENCE - DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPT.
Political science is the science of politics, the patterns of the emergence of political phenomena (institutions, relations, processes), the ways and forms of their functioning and development, the methods of managing political processes, political power, political consciousness, culture, etc.
In addition, here it is necessary to emphasize the differences between political science as a science, whose task is to study political reality, and political science as an academic discipline, the purpose of which is to accumulate and transfer knowledge about politics to a large number of people.

1.2. OBJECT AND SUBJECT OF STUDY.
The object and its pursuit of political science is the political sphere of society and its individual subsystems. An object is a kind of objective reality, independent of the cognizing subject. At the same time, the same object can be studied by different sciences. For example, the political sphere is an object of study for such sciences as political science, political sociology, philosophy, history, management, law, etc. But each of these sciences has its own subject in a single object. For example, history explores the chronology of the development of political systems through the prism of certain historical events. Political sociology - social aspects politicians. Legal Disciplines - legislative framework political processes, etc.
The subject of research is what a specific research is aimed at. This is a certain aspect (facet) of a real object. If the object, as already mentioned, does not depend on the cognizing subject, then the subject is chosen depending on the goals and objectives of the study. For example, as an object of study, we can take the state as one of the institutions of the political system, and as a subject - ways of forming state institutions.
The object and subject largely depend on the direction of the research. There are three main areas of political research:
One of the main directions is the study of political institutions. It involves the study of such phenomena as the state, political power, law, political parties, political and socio-political movements and other formalized and non-formalized political institutions. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that institutions are not buildings and not the people who fill them. Political institutions (from the Latin institutum - establishment, establishment) are a set of established rules, norms, traditions, principles, regulated processes and relations in a particular area of politics. For example, the institution of the presidency regulates the procedure for electing a president, the limits of his competence, the methods of re-election or removal from office, etc.
Another direction in the study of political science is political processes and phenomena. This direction involves the identification and analysis of objective laws and patterns, the development of the political system of society, as well as the development of various political technologies for their practical application.
The third direction of political research is: political consciousness, political psychology and ideology, political culture, political behavior of people and its motivation, as well as ways of communication and management of all these phenomena.

1.3. METHODS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
The institutional method focuses on the study of political institutions: the state, parties, political organizations and movements, electoral systems and other regulators of political activity and the political process.
With the emergence of sociology as a science in the middle of the XIX century. sociological methods are beginning to be used in political research. This method also becomes one of the main ones. It is widely used today.
The sociological method involves the identification of the social conditioning of political phenomena, reveals the social nature of power, defines politics as the interaction of large social communities. Based on specific sociological research (collection and analysis of real facts), the sociological method laid the foundation for applied political science focused on practical use research results.
The comparative (comparative) method was already used in ancient times. So, Plato and Aristotle, based on a comparison of various political regimes, determined the “correct” and “incorrect” forms of the state, and constructed in their theoretical works the most perfect (ideal), in their opinion, forms state structure. At present, the comparative method is widely used in political research, and comparative political science is a separate, relatively independent, scientific direction in the structure of general political science.
The anthropological method analyzes political phenomena based on the natural collectivist essence of man. Even Aristotle said that man by nature is a political being and cannot live apart. In the course of their evolutionary development, people improve their social organization and at a certain stage they pass to the political organization of society.
The psychological method involves the study of the psychological mechanisms of political behavior and motivation. As a scientific direction, it arose in the 19th century. However, it is based on many meaningful ideas ancient thinkers (Confucius, Aristotle, Seneca) and modern scientists (Machiavelli, Hobbes, Rousseau). A significant place in the psychological method is occupied by psychoanalysis, the foundations of which were developed by 3. Freud. With the help of psychoanalysis, unconscious mental processes and motivations that can have an active impact on political behavior are explored. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. in American psychology there is such a scientific direction as behaviorism. In the 30-50s of the XX century. it is actively developed in political science and becomes one of the most significant political methods in American political science.
The behavioral method is based on empirical observations of the social behavior of individuals and groups. In this case, priority is given to the study of individual characteristics. This method contributed to the study of the electoral behavior of voters and the development of pre-election technologies. Behaviorism has made a significant contribution to the development of empirical research methods in politics, contributed to the formation and development of applied political science. The disadvantages of behaviorism include the fact that it gives priority to the study of individuals and groups isolated from the general social structure and socio-cultural environment, rejects the historical traditions of peoples and moral principles in favor of "naked" rationality.
Structural-functional analysis suggests that the political sphere, like society as a whole, is a complex system (structure) consisting of many interrelated elements, each of which performs a specific function peculiar only to it.
The systems approach as a separate direction in political research emerged in the 50-60s of the 20th century. The main developers of this approach are the American researchers D. Easton and G. Almond. Although the theory of systems itself was somehow covered (developed) in the works of Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes, Marx, Spencer, Durkheim and others. The systems approach essentially becomes an alternative to behaviorism, since, unlike the latter, it considers the political sphere as an integral, self-regulating system that is in direct interaction with external environment. It makes it possible to streamline our ideas about the political sphere, to systematize the whole variety of political events, to build a certain model of political action. In addition to these methods, there are others in political research. For example, such as the method of expert assessments, modeling of political processes, ontological approach, historical approach, etc. There are two main levels of research in modern political science: theoretical and applied.
Theoretical political science is engaged in the development of general (functional) methods for studying the political sphere of society. But at the same time, all theoretical developments, one way or another, are aimed at solving practical problems.
Applied political science studies specific political situations in order to obtain the necessary information, develop political forecasts, practical advice, recommendations, etc.

1.4. FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AS A SCIENCE AND AS A DISCIPLINE.
The functions of political science as a science and as an academic discipline have much in common, but there are also certain differences. Consider separately each of the types of functions of political science.
Political science as a science is a necessary theoretical basis for the further development of political research and for the introduction of scientific developments into real politics.
Political science explores real-life political systems, ways of organizing society and the state, types of political regimes, forms of government, the activities of political parties and public organizations, the state of political consciousness and political culture, patterns of political behavior, problems of the effectiveness and legitimacy of political leadership, ways of forming institutions of power, and much more.
Political research creates a certain theoretical and scientific-methodological base necessary for the development of political science itself and for the improvement of the political sphere of society. scientific knowledge in the field of politics allow predicting and constructing political reality, tracking positive and negative trends in the development of political processes and, if necessary, making the necessary adjustments.
Functions of political science as a science and as an academic discipline
The task of political science as an academic discipline is to help people understand all the intricacies of politics, teach them to correctly understand (perceive) the existing social and political system, and adequately respond to the emerging political situation.
If we briefly talk about the functions of political science in general, we can single out the following of them:
cognitive - a certain way of knowing the socio-political reality and identifying the patterns of its development;
analytical - assessment of the state of the political system and the performance of various political factors in the political process;
prognostic - development of scientifically based forecasts about trends (prospects) in the development of political processes;
managerial - the use of the results of political research for the development and adoption of managerial decisions;
instrumental - improvement of existing and development of new methods
studies of political reality;
the function of political socialization is the preparation and integration (entry) of an individual, social groups into the political life of society;
ideological - the use of political research in the promotion of their
ideas and criticism of others.

Literature
Almond G. Political science: the history of discipline // Polis. 1997, No. 6.
Vasilik M.A., Vershinin M.S. Political science. M., 2001. Denken Zh.M. Political science. M., 1993. Part 1. Zerkin D.P. Fundamentals of political science. Rostov-on-D., 1996.
Krasnov B.I. Political science as a science and academic discipline// Socio-political magazine. 1997. No. 3.
Maltsev V. A. Fundamentals of political science: Proc. for universities. M., 2002.

Political science. Proc. for universities / Ed. ed. V.D. Passes. M., 2001.
Rogachev S.V. The subject of political science and its place in the system of social sciences / State and law.

TOPIC 2. EVOLUTION OF POLITICAL THOUGHT.

2.1. PHILOSOPHICAL AND ETHICAL CONCEPT OF THE POLITICAL THOUGHT OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
Confucius (Kung Tzu, c. 551-479 BC) is a famous Chinese philosopher and teacher, one of the founders of the philosophical and ethical concept of politics. His political doctrine was based on the principles strict order based on moral standards. Stability in society and order in the state, according to Confucius, can only be ensured if everyone strictly observes their rights and obligations.
Confucius associated successful government not with official impersonal legislation, but with the wisdom of a virtuous ruler and his worthy assistants. The ideas of virtue, justice and humanity are among the most important in the ethical teachings of Confucius. He believed that the state is not an end in itself, but a means of ensuring the welfare of the people.
Socrates (c. 470-399 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, a principled supporter of legality and moral politics. He divided political regimes into the following types:
Kingdom - power based on the will of the people and state laws; tyranny - the power of one ruler; aristocracy - the rule of persons who execute laws; democracy is a government that belongs to the will of all.
Socrates considered tyranny to be a regime of lawlessness, violence and arbitrariness. He saw the main shortcoming of democracy in the incompetence of its elected officials. And in the most optional way government controlled he considered the aristocracy to make good laws.
Socrates was the first in history to formulate the idea of contractual relations between the state and its citizens. If a citizen who has reached the age of majority does not agree with the current procedures, then he has the right to leave its limits with all his property. But the remaining citizens must comply with all decrees of the state and its bodies.
Plato (427 - 347 BC) is one of the greatest thinkers in human history. The basis of his teaching about society and the state was the dialogues "State", "Politics", "Laws". Developing the ideas of Socrates about various forms of government, Plato identifies such incorrect forms of power as: timocracy (the power of ambitious people), oligarchy, democracy and tyranny. He refers to the correct forms of monarchy and aristocracy.
In contrast to all these forms, Plato puts forward and describes the theory of the ideal state. According to this theory, power in such a state should belong to the first layer - philosophers, since only they have access to true knowledge and virtue. The second social layer is made up of guards and warriors who protect the state. The third layer is peasants and artisans, who ensure the material prosperity of the state. At the same time, everyone should mind their own business. In the dialogue "Politician" Plato talks about the art of public administration as a kind of special knowledge. In the dialogue "Laws" he notes that the right forms of thinking should be based on just laws.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) - an outstanding ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Plato, educator of Alexander the Great. Aristotle outlined his main socio-political views in his work "Politics".
According to Aristotle, the beginning of politics is ethics. Therefore, it must be virtuous and just. Political justice is considered as a common good, but it is possible only between free and equal people (not slaves).
If for Plato the state is still an end in itself (the fundamental principle), then Aristotle considers it as the result of the natural development of a person (family, village), as a kind of higher form of communication: “Man by nature is a political being.” But the state for a person is the greatest blessing.
Aristotle anticipated the understanding of the status of "citizen" in its legal and political meaning by more than 2 thousand years. In his opinion, a citizen is not one who lives in one place or another, but one who has a set of civil rights and has authority in public affairs. The main distinguishing feature of a citizen is virtue. But it cannot be possessed by people engaged in physical labor and trade.
Aristotle, like Plato, also divides the forms of political organization into right and wrong. To the correct he refers the monarchy, aristocracy and polity. To the wrong ones - tyranny, oligarchy and democracy. In the right forms, the rulers care about the common good, in the wrong forms - about the personal good or the good of the few.
Of all forms of government, Aristotle gives the greatest preference to polity - an ideally constructed "average" form of government. Polity includes three forms at once, three principles:
aristocracy presupposes the principle of virtue;
oligarchy - wealth;
democracy is freedom.
Such a symbiosis of three different forms and principles, according to the philosopher, could give the best (ideal) form of state government.
Aristotle was opposed to the excessive concentration of wealth in the hands of the oligarchs, since they always seek to usurp power and money. He was also against excessive poverty - for it leads to uprisings, the purpose of which is the redistribution of property. Therefore, social stability depends on people of average income: the more such people in a society, the more stable it develops. And political stability in an ideal state should be ensured by correct laws. Cicero (106 - 43 BC) - Roman orator, statesman, writer. If for Plato and Aristotle natural law (true law) were inseparable from the state and arose together with the state, then Cicero in his treatise “On the State” argued that natural law (true law) arose earlier than written laws and the state itself. The source of this higher law is the divine principle and the rational, social nature of people.
This law applies to all people and it is impossible to cancel or limit it. And the state is only the embodiment of what exists in nature and society.
Subsequently, the doctrine of natural law was inherited by Roman lawyers (Roman law) and the fathers of the church, and the very idea of \u200b\u200ba “legal state” takes its origins from the natural (inalienable) higher law that Cicero spoke about.
Philosophical and ethical concept of political thought ancient world made a significant contribution to the development of the doctrine of the state, politics, laws. Were studied in detail (described) various forms structure of the state, types of political regimes, some methods of rational government of the state are defined, developed legal framework state structure.
However, this philosophical and ethical concept is characterized by limitations. It lies in the fact that the state is considered as the fundamental principle of all human life. Man, society, law outside the state, as if it means nothing. Only the state is able to provide a person with virtue and justice. Only Cicero takes the first timid steps towards the delimitation of the state and society, state and law.

2.2. RELIGIOUS CONCEPT OF POLITICAL THOUGHT (MIDDLE AGES).
In the Middle Ages (5th-15th centuries AD), the philosophical and ethical concept of politics in Western Europe was gradually replaced by a religious concept.
During the period of paganism, the functions of religion essentially merged with the tasks of the state and were inseparable from each other.
Christianity, recognizing the legitimacy of the state, began to claim a certain special role in society and the state. In relation to society, it assumes a whole range of social functions that are not just offered, but imposed on people.
In relations with the state, Christianity, depending on the circumstances, pursues a rather flexible policy: sometimes it tries to dominate state power (“the city of God is the highest city”); then it observes formal neutrality (to God - God's, to Caesar - Caesar's); then obediently agrees with the will of the state ("all power is from God").
Consider the views of some of the most prominent representatives of the religious concept of political thought.
Augustine Aurelius (354-430) - Bishop of Hippo, one of the creators of Christian political theory. In his essay On the City of God, he outlined his political doctrine. Augustine sharply contrasts the church and the state: "the city of God" and "the city of the earth." The earthly city includes the devil's will, becomes a social tyrant. The true state, according to Augustine, will be realized only after the second coming of Christ, when the final separation of the righteous and sinners takes place.
The state is considered by Augustine as part of the universal order, the creator and ruler of which is God. Therefore, princes must serve both God and man with their power. To improve public administration, he proposes the idea of renewing the earthly city in line with Christian virtue and humanism.
Thomas Aquinas (Thomas Aquinas 1225/6-1274). Aquinas greatly enriched the religious concept of the state. As a result of a long search and rethinking of various theories, he came to the conclusion that the state has a positive value. It not only saves the world, but is also an expression of divine foresight and the will of the Almighty in the name of people.
In his work "The Sum of Theology" Aquinas considers eternal law, divine law, natural law and positive law.
1. Eternal law is the wisdom of God, it directs the entire development of the universe. All other, more limited forms of law are derived from it.
2. Divine law (commandments) - an additional guide to natural law.
3. Natural law is the standards of truth and justice inherent in all normal people.
4. Positive law is laws imposed by the state that do not allow people to do evil and disturb the peace.
The positive law, Aquinas emphasized, is introduced according to reason. This means that the monarch is subject to reason and natural law, like any other person.
If the positive law introduced by the sovereign is contrary to natural law and reason, then it is illegal and is a distortion of law. Only in this case did Aquinas recognize the lawful action of the people against the monarch. In other cases, speaking out against authority is a mortal sin.
The religious concept of the state contributed to the further development of political thought. In particular, she
She brought the spirit of the new Christian sense of justice into the communication of people. And although religion taught people to unquestioningly obey the authorities, nevertheless, Christian moral norms appeared between the state and society, which contributed to the individualization of the legal consciousness of people.

2.3. CIVIL CONCEPT OF POLITICAL THOUGHT (RENAISSANCE AND NEW TIME).
In the XVI - XVII centuries. heterogeneous socio-political forces and ideological movements undermine the power of the Catholic Church. As a result of the Reformation of the Church, the state was freed from church guardianship, and the church itself was freed from the state. One of the results of the religious reforms was the freedom of conscience and worldly recognition of the Christian. Thus, having freed itself from the philosophical and ethical political concept of the Ancient World and the religious concept of the Middle Ages, political thought acquires a secular character. A civic concept of political thought is born, the starting point of which is the individual - a citizen.
Machiavelli Niccolo (1469-1527) - an outstanding Italian thinker and politician. He outlined his main political views and beliefs in such works as: “Discourses on the 1st decade of Titus Livius”, “The Sovereign”, “On the Art of War”, “History of Florence”. Based on the content of these treatises, Machiavelli can be identified as one of the earliest representatives of the political theory of capitalism. In his "new method" Machiavelli was the first to single out political studies as an independent scientific direction. He believed that political science should comprehend the true state of affairs, solve real problems of power and control, and not consider imaginary situations.
According to Machiavelli, the state is not the work of God, but the work of man. Therefore, not God, but man is the center of the universe. The political state of society is characterized by certain relations between people, between the ruler and subjects. The purpose of these relations is to ensure order, the inviolability of private property and the security of the individual.
Machiavelli believed that the power of any state should be based on good laws and a strong army. And the ruler himself should be like a centaur, combining the strength of a lion and the cunning of a fox.
Of all forms of government, Machiavelli preferred the republican form. He believed that it was in it that it was possible in the best way to combine the benefits and freedoms of citizens, competing with each other and taking care of both private and public interests. But the forms of state government are established not at the whim of individuals or groups, but depending on the balance of constantly struggling forces.
Hobbes Thomas (1588-1679) - an outstanding philosopher and political thinker of England. His main political work is considered to be the book Leviathan, or Matter, Form and Power of the Church and Civil State (1651). His concept was aimed at developing a secular theory of political power and the state, i.e. he denied the theory of the divine origin of royal power.
Developing the theory of the secular origin of power, Hobbes comes to the conclusion that the state arises as a result of a social contract. In his book "Leviathan" he describes the chaos (the war of all against all), in which people lived in a pre-state state. In search of a way out of the chaos, people entered into an agreement, renouncing part of their natural rights and transferring them to the state. Thus, they voluntarily limited their freedom in exchange for law and order. Therefore, the source of royal power is the social contract, as a result of which the state appears.
According to Hobbes, the supreme power is absolute, but not total: it does not interfere in the personal affairs of citizens. People are free to do everything that is not prohibited by law: enter into and terminate contracts, sell and acquire property, and so on.
Locke John (1632-1704) - English philosopher and politician, founder of liberalism. For the first time, he clearly separated such concepts as the individual, society and the state, and placed the individual above society and the state. In his opinion, individuals create society, and society creates the state. Society and the state are not the same. The fall of the state does not mean the fall of society. Society can create another state power if the existing one does not satisfy it.
Locke was a supporter of limited monarchy, believing that absolute monarchy is worse than the natural (pre-state) state. He was one of the first to put forward the idea of separation of powers into legislative and executive, while giving priority to the legislative branch, which, in his opinion, determines the policy of the state. The main goal of the state, according to Locke, is the protection of the rights of the individual.
Montesquieu Charles Louis (1689-1755) - French political philosopher, historian, jurist, sociologist.
Montesquieu made a great contribution to the development of the civil concept of political thought. Let us dwell on the two most significant fragments from his heritage.
First. In his most significant work, The Spirit of the Law, he substantiates the theory that laws are developed and adopted by society (the state) based on a combination of factors. “Many things,” Montesquieu wrote, “govern people: climate, religion, laws, principles of government, examples of the past, mores, customs: as a result of all this, a common spirit of the people is formed.”
Second. Analyzing the works of his eminent predecessors, Montesquieu comes to the conclusion that political power in society should be divided into three main types: legislative, executive and judicial, so that various authorities can mutually restrain each other.
With their scientific works Montesquieu, as it were, completes the architectural structure of the "building" of the civil concept of political thought.

2.4. SOCIAL CONCEPT OF POLITICAL THOUGHT (XIX - EARLY XX CENTURIES).
The civil concept of political thought, it would seem, has prepared a fairly extensive base for the further development of the individual, society and the state. However, in reality, everything turned out to be much more complicated. Laws created by the will of the majority became binding on everyone, and if an individual or group had their own opinion different from others, then the “general will” forced them to be like everyone else (whoever is not with us is against us). Thus, the minority became the hostage of the majority. The French political scientist Alexis Tocqueville (1805-1859) characterized this situation with the words "political tyranny of the majority."
Liberalism in the economic sphere (freedom of private enterprise, individualism, competition) leads to the fact that a significant part of citizens find themselves below the poverty line and cannot use “guaranteed” rights and freedoms and realize their opportunities.
In the political sphere, a person, giving part of his powers (his political will) to representative authorities, according to J.-J. Rousseau, becomes a slave to this very power.
Realizing the obvious flaws in the civil concept of the state, many political thinkers, trying to find a way out of the predicament, are gradually developing a new social concept of political thought, which should be based on humanism and social justice.
John Mill (1806-1873) - English scientist. In his work Reflections on Representative Government, in order to rid the minority of the dominant majority, he proposes a system of proportional representation and the maximum participation of citizens in the government of the welfare state. Tocqueville believes that citizens should voluntarily cooperate in free institutions local government and voluntary political and civil associations. Thus, they will be able to directly participate in the management of society.
Max Weber (1864-1920) - an outstanding German political economist and sociologist believed that in order to effectively defend their rights and freedoms, individuals must be consolidated into interest groups. And in order for the government to enjoy the trust of its people and be able to effectively manage, it must be legitimate.
In the XX century. the liberal conception (neoliberalism) of political thought began to focus more on social problems society. In the economic sphere, antimonopoly laws are being introduced, taxes on excess profits are being increased. The redistribution of income through government agencies and charitable organizations reduces the income gap between the richest and poorest segments of the population.
The mio-party political system and the well-established structure of the separation of powers, to a large extent, make it possible to exercise control over the activities of power structures. A well-functioning election system provides an opportunity to participate in the formation of government bodies to the general population.
The social concept of political thought, which put forward the idea of creating a welfare state, was able to answer a number of topical questions. But in the course of the further development of society, new problems appear, for the solution of which new concepts are also needed.

2.5. HISTORY OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL THOUGHT IN RUSSIA.
Political thought in Russia originates from ancient times. The first mentions of the origin of the state, the structure of power and its rationale are evidenced in such documents as the “Sermon on Law and Grace” of the Kiev Metropolitan Hilarion (1049), in the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” (1113), “Order of Vladimir Monomakh” (1125) and others.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion interrupted the natural course of state building in Rus'. In 1552, Ivan IV the Terrible conquered the Kazan, and in 1556 - the Astrakhan Khanate and saved Rus' from a constant threat from the outside.
In the XVI century. political ideas in Rus' receive a new development. So, for example, the Pskov monk Philotheus develops the idea of a strong, independent Russian state (“Moscow is the Third Rome”). I.S. Peresvetov in 1549 handed over his writings to Ivan IV the Terrible, in which he considered ways of forming the supreme power of the state. He advocated the strengthening of the autocracy, the formation of an all-Russian army, the creation of a unified legislation, the restriction of the boyars, etc. AM also made a significant contribution to the development of political thought. Kurbsky. He believed that power should be based on properly adopted laws.
Until the 18th century a significant influence on the political and social ideas of Russia had a religious worldview. The socio-political and economic reforms of Peter I (early 18th century) not only “opened a window to Europe”, but also contributed to the development of socio-political thought in Russia.
In the XVIII century. contribution to the development of political thought was made by such Russian scientists as F. Prokopovich, V. Tatishchev, D.S. Anichkov, Ya.P. Kozelsky, A.N. Radishchev and others. But if most of the listed scientists were supporters of an enlightened monarchy, then A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802) is rightfully considered the founder of the revolutionary direction of political thought in Russia. in his works “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”, “Draft Civil Code”, he opposes autocracy and serfdom. Following Rousseau, Radishchev put forward the idea of popular sovereignty, believing that all peoples are born free and equal. And in order to defend their freedom, the people have the right to revolt.
In the first half of the 19th century, largely due to the influence of the French Revolution, a new period in the development of political thought began in Russia. The advanced Russian intelligentsia feels the need for socio-political and economic reforms in Russia. Secret organizations are being created in which problems and prospects for reforming Russian society are discussed. New ideas are reflected in the works of such thinkers as P.Ya. Chaadaev, I.I. Nadezhdin, N.S. Mordvinov, M.M. Speransky, N.M. Muravyov, P.I. Pestel and others. So, one of the leaders of the December (1825) uprising P.I. Pestel (1793-1826) expounded his republican views in such works as The Constitution. State Testament” and “Russian Truth”. He opposed serfdom and autocracy and believed that the people exist "for their own good" and not for the good of the government.
In the 40-60s of the XIX century. Russian socio-political and philosophical thought is divided into two main currents - Slavophiles and Westerners.
Slavophiles: I.S. and K.S. Aksakovs, I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Koshelev, Yu.F. Samarin, A. S. Khomyakov, A. A. Grigoriev and others substantiated the originality of the historical path of Russia and opposed the borrowing of Western European forms of political life. The doctrine of the Slavophiles was based on three main principles: Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.
Westerners: P.V. Annenkov, A.I. Herzen, V.P. Botkin, T.N. Granovsky, M.H. Katkov, K.D. Kavelin, N.P. Ogarev and others criticized the theory of official nationality and believed that Russia should develop along the Western European path.
Despite differences in views, both Slavophiles and Westerners agreed on the need to abolish serfdom, grant civil liberties and reform Russia.
The abolition of serfdom in Russia (1861) contributed to a significant increase in the pace of development of the country, a change in the social class structure, and the intensification of socio-political life. To a large extent, this was facilitated by the work of such scientists as A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, D.I. Pisarev, P.I. Lavrov, M.A. Bakunin and others. For example, Chernyshevsky believed that the most rational form of government is a republic, and the essence of state power is determined by economic factors. According to Chernyshevsky, Russia can come to a democratic republic through a peasant revolution.
At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. in Russia, political ideas and movements of revolutionary democrats, including adherents of Marxism, arise and gain strength. A significant contribution to the development of Marxist theory and practice was made by such scientists and politicians as G.V. Plekhanov, P.B. Struve, V.I. Lenin, L. Martov, L.V. Trotsky, S.N. Bulgakov and others.
With the victory of the socialist revolution (1917), the total dominance of the communist (Marxist-Leninist) ideology was established in Russia, through the prism of which all political processes and phenomena were interpreted. An open, pluralistic discussion of political views and ideas became possible only with the beginning in the late 80s of the XX century. democratization of Russian society.

Literature
Anthology of world political thought: In 5 volumes. M., 1997.
Aristotle. Politics // Op. in 4 volumes. T. 4.1983.
Vinogradov I.B. Political ideas of modernity // Socio-political journal. 1997. No. 1
Vladimirov M. Confucius. M., 1992.
Hobbes T. Leviathan. Op. in 2 vols. T.2. M., 1990.
History of political and legal doctrines. M., 1991.
LockJ. Two treatises on government // Op. in 3 volumes. T. 3. M., 1988.
Machiavelli N. Selected Works. M., 1982.
Maltsev V A. Fundamentals of political science: Proc. for universities. M. 2002.
Montesquieu III. Selected works. M., 1965.
Fundamentals of political science. Proc. allowance. 4.1. / Ed. V.P. Pugachev. M., 1993.
Plato. Sovereign // Op. M., 1994.
Political sociology. Rostov-on-D., 1997.
Political theory and political practice. Dictionary-reference book. M., 1994.

TOPIC 3. POLITICS AND POLITICAL POWER
3.1. CONCEPT, STRUCTURE AND ESSENCE OF POWER.
In a general sense, power is the ability and ability to influence the behavior and activities of others. The essence of power lies in the relations of domination and subordination that arise between those who give orders and those who carry out these orders, or who are subjected to power influences.
Power relations arise wherever stable communities of people exist. Any organization, any and joint type of activity cannot be carried out without power relations, without someone leading, and someone following instructions. Even in interpersonal communication of people, as a rule, there are relations of subordination.
There are many different types of power in society, for example, such as: parental, economic, legal, spiritual, ideological, informational, etc.
According to the means of influence and motives of subordination, one can distinguish such types of power as power based:
on fear;
on reward and interest in submission;
on the authority of the bearer of power;
on tradition and habit of obedience;
on the norms of law and customs of culture, etc.
The structure of power relations includes the following components:
The subject of power is the one who gives orders.
The object of power is the one on whom the influence of power is directed.
Resources that allow the subject to exercise an imperious influence on the object.
The subjugation of the one over whom power is exercised.
The absence of any of the above components makes power relations impossible for the following reasons:
1. Power relations are possible only with the interaction of at least two people, one of which is a subject, the other is an object.
2. The subject of power must have the necessary resources in order to "force" the object to obey.
If the one to whom the influence of power is directed does not recognize the competence of the subject of power and does not follow his orders, then power relations do not arise. They can arise only in relations of domination and subordination. In other cases, you can use any resources, any force, but these actions will qualify as violence, murder, genocide, etc., but not as power relations.

3.2. FEATURES OF POLITICAL POWER.
Any kind of power in society arises in a certain area and has its own limits of competence. For example, parental power takes place in parent-child relationships, economic power in economic relations, and so on. Political power has a number of distinguishing features from other types of power:
The universal binding nature of power and supremacy over all other types of power.
Monopoly on the regulation of political life, on the issuance of decrees, orders, etc.
The right to violence is legality and a monopoly in the use of force within one's own country.
The ability to use a wide variety of resources to achieve your goals.
Power cannot be reduced only to domination and subordination (coercion, violence, etc.). Under normal conditions, millions of people “voluntarily” comply with the requirements of the laws and do not feel “pressure” from the authorities. Coercion acts as a kind of symbolic intermediary, as an equivalent that defines the line between the norm and deviation. It only applies if there has been a violation. The frequent use of violence by the authorities indicates the instability of social relations. This is a sign that either the authorities are acting inadequately to their functions, or a significant part of the citizens are unable to fulfill the requirements.
In democratic political systems, political power is divided into: legislative, executive and judicial. This separation creates a mechanism of checks and balances, the main task of which is to prevent the usurpation (seizure) of the full power of one of the branches. However, in practice it is not always possible to establish the parity of the authorities. Thus, in Russia over the past 10 years, the executive branch, headed by the president, has clearly dominated.

3.3. LEGITIMACY OF POLITICAL POWER.
Legitimate power is usually characterized as lawful and just. The word legitimacy itself comes from the Latin. legitimus - legal. But not every legitimate power can be legitimate. Already in the Middle Ages, there are theoretical justifications that a monarch who becomes a tyrant and does not fulfill his destiny deprives his power of legitimacy. In this case, the people have the right to overthrow such power (in particular, Thomas Aquinas spoke about this in the 12th-13th centuries).
Legitimacy is the confidence of the people that the government will fulfill its obligations; it is the recognition of the authority of power and voluntary submission to it; this is the idea of the correct and expedient use of power, including violence. But legitimate power, as a rule, is able to ensure the stability and development of society without resorting to violence.
Max Weber (1864-1920) identified three main types of political domination and their corresponding forms of legitimacy:
Traditional domination - legitimacy based on the traditions of a patriarchal society, for example, monarchy - traditional legitimacy.
Charismatic domination - legitimacy based on real or imaginary outstanding qualities of the ruler, leader, prophet - charismatic legitimacy.
Dominance based on rationally created rules is the rational-legal legitimacy of law-abiding citizens in a democratic society.
In addition to these, there are other types of legitimacy, for example, ideological and structural. Ideological legitimacy is based on some ideological "constructs" - attractive ideas, promises of a "secular future" or a "new world order", etc. Thus, the communist ideology and promises of the rapid construction of communism largely ensured the legitimacy of the Soviet regime of power. And the ideas of National Socialism contributed to the legitimization of the fascist regime in Germany.
Structural legitimacy is based on the rules and norms established in society for the establishment and change of power, for example, the Constitution (constitutional legitimacy). If the majority of citizens are dissatisfied with the political power existing in society, then they “tolerate” it until new elections.

3.4. CORRELATION OF LEGALITY AND LEGITIMACY OF POWER.
Legality and legitimacy of power are equivalent, but not identical concepts. The authorities, which have legal grounds for dominating society, as a result of their ineffective policy, may lose the trust of citizens and become illegitimate. So, for example, the President of Russia, legally elected in 1996, B.N. Yeltsin at the end of 1999 enjoyed the confidence of no more than 10% of Russian citizens; completely lost its legitimacy.
And vice versa, power without legal grounds, as a result of an effective policy, can gain the trust of the people and become legitimate. For example, General A. Pinochet, who came to power in Chile through a military coup (1973), as a result of an effective economic policy, subsequently became a completely legitimate and legitimate president of the country.
Legitimate, but not legal power, as it were, receives carte blanche (authority) from the people to make life better for people, and only then establish the legal foundations of power. Legitimate, but not legitimate power is deprived of the support of its people and in the future it (the power) may resort to illegal means in politics.
Any political power (even the most reactionary) seeks to appear in the eyes of its people and the world community as effective and legitimate. Therefore, the process of legitimization of power is the subject of special attention of the ruling elite. One of the most common tricks in this process is to hush up the negative results of one's policy and to “push out” real and imaginary successes in every possible way. Quite often, independent media (mass media) become an obstacle in such a substitution of negative factors for positive ones. Therefore, the inefficient and illegitimate government seeks by all means to restrict the activities of independent media and/or put them under its control.
Another technique is when the government verbally recognizes the values, desires and aspirations of its citizens, declares its intentions to fight corruption, drug addiction, crime, etc., but in reality pursues its corporate goals, often “covering up” crime in its own ranks. .
Sometimes people in power or aspiring to power sincerely believe that they are the main spokesmen for public interests, and that citizens sincerely approve and support their political activities, although this is not true. Such self-conceit of politicians is called "legitimate imposture".
The best option is when the power is legal and legitimate. In such a situation, the ruling elite relies on the trust of the majority of citizens and it is easier for them to solve their tasks. On the other hand, people who trust their political power voluntarily submit to its decisions and contribute to the achievement of the intended goals, without feeling coerced.

3.5. POLITICAL POWER AND POLITICAL DOMINATION.
One of the key concepts in political science is the concept of "political domination". It cannot be viewed as domination, oppression, suppression, etc.
Political domination is the structuring of power relations in society, when conditions (a system of institutions) are created so that some have the opportunity to issue decrees and orders, others to execute them.
Power and dominance are closely related. But not all power means domination. You can seize power, you can proclaim the sovereignty of power on certain territory either in one country or another. However, if appropriate power structures are not created there, and a significant part of the population does not obey this “proclaimed” authority, then political domination will not arise there. Dominance assumes that power takes institutional forms, creates a stable system of political control, in which some govern and others obey.
The concept of "domination" implies a center and periphery that actively interact and have appropriate communications, connections and relationships. If the center does not satisfy the political, economic, social "requests" of the periphery, and other connections and relations become more preferable for it, then the relations of domination and subordination between the center and the periphery begin to weaken. Thus, the uncertain policy of the Federal Government and the President of the Russian Federation in relation to the regions, which took place from the beginning of the 90s until 2000, almost led to the collapse of the Russian Federation. Many regions of the Russian Federation (Kaliningrad Region, Primorsky Territory, Tatarstan, Chechnya, etc.) began to focus more on other states in their socio-economic policy.
Power is not only the strength and will of the ruler, but also the awareness of dependence, and the willingness to obey the subject. When power resorts to violence, this is a sure sign that the structured system of domination and subordination is broken. good example such a violation of the system of political domination are the events in Chechnya.

3.6.PRINCIPLES OF POWER DIVISION.
The separation of powers is a theoretical doctrine and real practice division of power among several political institutions. The essence of separation is to limit (prevent) the absolutism of the power of the monarch, president, parliament and other political institutions.
Attempts to separate powers or limit the power of the sovereign were already made in ancient states. In the Middle Ages, in many European countries, power was divided between the state and the church.
In political theory, the principle of separation of powers was first substantiated in the works of J. Locke (“An Essay on the Human Mind”, “Two Treatises on Government”). Locke believed that the people are the supreme authority. He (the people) establishes the state with the help of a social contract and transfers power to rulers who divide power into legislative and executive.
The theory of separation of powers was further developed in the works of C. Montesquieu (“On the Spirit of Laws”). He believed that in order to limit the abuse of power and establish the rule of law, power should be divided into legislative, executive and judicial.
In practice, the principle of separation of powers was implemented during the formation of the United States and enshrined in the Constitution of 1787. The essence of this principle is that political power is divided into legislative, executive and judicial branches. Each of the branches of government is relatively independent of the others and performs its own specific function. But this is not only a simple distribution of functions between various parts of the state apparatus, but the creation of three relatively independent spheres of power with their own special structures.
The principle of separation of powers is most characteristic of a democratic republican form of government. Legislative power in the republic is exercised by the parliament, which is elected by the citizens for a fixed term. The executive branch is carried out by the government, which is formed either by the president (in a presidential republic) or by the parliament (in a parliamentary republic). Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary. The functions of the judiciary include not only the administration of justice, but also control over the observance of laws by the executive and legislative branches of power, as well as the protection of the rights of citizens.
In order for one branch of power not to encroach on the prerogatives of the other, the limits of competence of each of the branches are detailed and enshrined in law, for example, in the Constitution. Thus, a system of "checks and balances" is being created, which does not allow any of the branches of power to usurp all power in the country.

3.7. STRUCTURES OF POLITICAL POWER IN RUSSIA.
According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Russia is a democratic, federal legal state with a republican form of government. The basis for the formation of federal relations is the Federal Treaty and the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
Vertically, the federal structure of Russia has three levels of public (people's) power: the federal center, the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, and local self-government. Each level of power has its own exclusive competence, in which the bodies of a different level of power have no right to interfere.
Horizontally, political power in the Russian Federation is divided into three main branches: legislative, executive and judicial. Each of these branches of government has its own competence and relative independence from each other.
The legislative power of the Russian Federation is exercised by the Federal Assembly (Parliament), which consists of two chambers: the upper one - the Federation Council and the lower one - the State Duma.
The Federation Council is a representative and legislative body. It is formed by delegating two representatives from each of the 89 subjects of the Russian Federation. One representative is delegated from the representative (legislative) body of the subject of the Russian Federation, the other - from the executive. The recall of a representative from the Federation Council is carried out by decision of the relevant body of the subject of the Russian Federation. The Federation Council expresses the interests of the regions. The adopted one serves as an intermediary between the President of the Russian Federation and the State Duma in the adoption of laws. All federal laws adopted by the State Duma are subject to mandatory consideration by the Federation Council. The decision of the Federation Council is considered adopted if the majority of its members voted for it.
The State Duma consists of 450 deputies who are elected for four years and work for professional basis. At the same time, 225 deputies are elected on party lists, and another 225 - in single-mandate constituencies.
Resolutions of the State Duma are adopted by a majority vote of the total number of deputies of the State Duma. In the event of a rejection of a federal law adopted by the State Duma by the Federation Council, both chambers can create a conciliation commission to overcome the disagreements that have arisen. If disagreements between the chambers on the federal law could not be overcome, then the law is considered adopted if at least two-thirds of the total number of deputies of the State Duma voted in the repeated voting.
A law adopted by the State Duma and approved by the Federation Council is sent to the President within five days for signing and promulgation within fourteen days. If the President rejected the law submitted for signature, the State Duma and the Federation Council may either re-consider and finalize the law, or override the President's veto by a majority of at least two-thirds of the total number of members of the Federation Council and deputies of the State Duma. In this case, the President is required to sign and promulgate the federal law within seven days.
Executive power in the Russian Federation is exercised by the Government of the Russian Federation. It consists of the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation, Vice-Chairmen and federal ministers. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Russian Federation with the consent of the State Duma.
The Government of the Russian Federation develops and submits State Duma the federal budget and ensures its execution; submits to the State Duma a report on the execution of the federal budget; ensures the implementation of a unified financial, credit and monetary policy in the Russian Federation; unified state policy in the field of culture, science, education, healthcare, social security, ecology; manages federal property; takes measures to ensure the defense of the country, state security, the implementation of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation; takes measures to ensure the rule of law, the rights and freedoms of citizens, the protection of property and public order, the fight against crime; exercise other powers assigned to him by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws, decrees of the President of the Russian Federation
Justice in the Russian Federation is carried out only by the court. Judicial power is exercised through constitutional, civil, administrative and criminal proceedings.

LITERATURE
Degtyarev A.A. Political power as a regulatory mechanism for social communication // Polis, 1996. No. 3.
Zalysin I.Yu. Political violence in the power system // Socio-political journal, 1995. No. 3.
Ilyin M.V., Melville A.Yu. Power // Polis, 1997, No. 6.
Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993). M., 2003.
Ledyaeva V.G. Power: Conceptual Analysis // Polis, 2000. No. 1.
Moiseev N. Power of the people and power for the people // Russian Federation 1997. No. 2.
Pimenov R.N. The origin of modern power. M., 1996. Political science: Proc. for universities / Ed. ed. V.D. Passes. M., 2001. Pugachev V.P. Political Science: A Student's Handbook. M., 2001. Fetisov A.S. Political power: problems of legitimacy. Socio-political magazine. 1995, no. 3.
Khalipov V.F. Introduction to the science of power. M., 1996. Homeleva R.A. The nature of political power. SPb., 1999

TOPIC 4 POLITICAL ELITES AND POLITICAL LEADERSHIP

The political elite is a small, relatively privileged, fairly independent, superior group (or a combination of groups), which, to a greater or lesser extent, has certain psychological, social and political qualities necessary to control other people and is directly involved in the exercise of state power. People who are part of the political elite, as a rule, are engaged in politics on a professional basis. Elitism as an integral system was formed in the first half of the 20th century. thanks to the work of such scientists as V. / Pareto, G. Moski and R. Michels.
4.1. MODERN ELITE THEORIES.
Currently, there are many schools and directions in the development of the theory of elites. The ideas of Mosca, Pareto, Michels, and others, who are members of the so-called Machiavellian school, have the following common features:
recognition of the elitism of any society, its division into a ruling creative minority and a passive majority;
special psychological qualities of the elite (natural gift and upbringing);
group cohesion and elitist self-awareness, self-perception
special layer;
legitimacy of the elite, recognition by the masses of its right to leadership;
structural constancy of the elite, its power relations. Although the personal composition of the elite is constantly changing, from the wearing of domination and subordination at its core remain base;
the formation and change of elites occurs in the course of the struggle for power.
In addition to the Machiavellian school, there are many other theories of elites in modern political science and sociology. For example, the value theory proceeds from the fact that the elite is the most valuable element of society and its dominant position is in the interests of the whole society, because it is the most productive part of society. According to pluralistic concepts in society, there are many elites in various spheres of life. There is competition between the elites, which allows the masses to control the activities of the elites and prevent the formation of a single dominant group.
The political elite is divided into two main categories. The first includes officials of state bodies and employees of the apparatus of parties and movements. They are appointed to their positions by the heads of the organizations. Their role in the political process is reduced mainly to the preparation of political decisions and the legal execution of already adopted decisions.
The second category includes public politicians, for whom politics is not only a profession, but also a vocation. They are not appointed to positions, but win their place in the political structure in open political struggle.
In addition, the political elite is divided into ruling and opposition, higher, middle and administrative. In general, the elite is a necessary element in the organization and management of any society, any social community.

4.2. POLITICAL LEADERSHIP
A leader is a person (group) who takes on the role of head, head of any social group, political party, organization, society as a whole, an athlete who leads the race.
Leadership may be formal, that is, officially recognized and legally formalized, or it may not be formal.
A leader is a person who, for one reason or another, is endowed with a certain amount of authority in order to formulate and express the interests and goals of other people, to mobilize them for certain actions. How effectively he will fulfill the duties assigned to him depends to a large extent on the personal qualities of the leader himself.
It is generally believed that in order to fulfill their functions, a leader must have the following qualities: competence, flexibility of mind, courage, determination, the ability to convince others that they are right, mobilize people for certain actions, the ability to select and place people, and have "charisma" and a sense of foresight, the ability and courage to take responsibility not only for themselves personally, but also for others.

4.3. TYPOLOGY OF POLITICAL LEADERS.
M. Weber identifies three main types of leadership: traditional, charismatic, rational-legal or democratic.
Traditional leadership is based on political tradition, for example, the crown prince becomes king even if he does not have the qualities of a leader. The basis of his legitimacy is his elite origin.
Charismatic leadership involves exceptional personal qualities the leader himself, which he actually possesses or which are attributed to him by his entourage and in every possible way inflated by the media. V. Lenin, I. Stalin, A. Hitler, Mao Zedong, A. Khomeini and others were charismatic leaders. The basis of the legitimacy of a charismatic leader is his superiority over others.
Rational-legal (democratic) leadership is based on the legal and regulatory framework existing in society. For example, in accordance with constitutional norms, citizens elect the president of their country, entrusting him with the highest post in the state for a certain period. The basis of his legitimacy is his presidential status (public position).
Political leaders can combine several types of leadership at once. For example, a rational-legal leader may also have charismatic qualities (De Gaulle - France, Roosevelt - USA).
According to the American scholar Margaret Hermann, when considering leadership, the following factors should be taken into account:
the character of the leader himself;
properties of its constituents (adherents, voters);
the relationship between the leader and his constituents;
specific situation in which leadership is exercised.
Taking into account the above factors, M. Hermann identifies four
leadership type:
A standard-bearer leader who has his own vision of reality, "his own dream", for the sake of which he exercises his leadership and seeks to captivate others.
A servant leader who seeks to act as a spokesman for the interests of his adherents.

A merchant leader who has the ability to convince his supporters to "buy" his plans and ideas, to involve people in their implementation.
A firefighter leader is a leader who reacts to problems (situations) that have already arisen, i.e. engaged in firefighting.
IN real life(according to M. Hermann) most leaders use all four images of leadership in a different order and combination.
According to the style of leadership, leaders are divided into three main types: authoritarian, democratic and liberal.
4.4. THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP (OR HOW YOU BECOME A LEADER).
There are various theories explaining the phenomenon of leadership. For example, trait theory explains the nature of leadership in terms of the outstanding qualities of individuals.
The situational concept tends to believe that the leader owes his "birth" to the situation. For example, the “right person” was at the “right time” in the “right place”. In other words, he managed to assess the situation and did not miss his chance. But here it is necessary that the potential leader himself “ripe” for the situation that has arisen.
The theory of constituents considers leadership as a special relationship between the leader and constituents (activists, followers, voters who support this leader). According to this theory, a leader must be guided by the interests and needs of that group, those social strata that are ready to support him, which, in essence, make him a leader.
The psychological concepts of leadership can be divided into two main areas. According to the first one, the need for authority and patron lives in the “mass” person. The absence of a leader - a hero for many people becomes almost a tragedy. And such people are strenuously looking for idols and sometimes create heroes even from mediocre people.
The second direction of the psychological concept explains the phenomenon of leadership by the existence of a certain type of personality, predisposed to authoritarianism and constantly striving for power. Often these people have certain inferiority complexes and, in order to somehow compensate for them, they strive to prove themselves, towering over others (E. Fromm).
Sociological concepts explain the phenomenon of leadership as a functional necessity social system. Any social structure (community, society) can function stably only if there is a certain control system. The leader is objectively a necessary element of the control system (T. Parsons).
To classify leadership, the typology of political domination proposed by M. Weber is also used: traditional leadership, charismatic, legal or democratic.
FUNCTIONS OF A POLITICAL LEADER.
The functions of a political leader are very diverse. They depend on the society and the state in which he has to govern, on the specific tasks facing the country, on the alignment of political forces. The most important of these functions are:
Integration of society, social community, class, party, etc. on the basis of common goals, values, political ideas.
Definition of strategic guidelines in the development of society and the state.
Participation in the process of development and adoption of political decisions, identification of ways and methods of implementing program goals.
Mobilization of the masses to achieve political goals. Social arbitration, support of order and legality.
Communication between the authorities and the masses, strengthening channels of political and emotional connection with citizens, for example, through the media or during various public events, including during election campaigns.
Legitimization of power.
Literature
Artemov G.P. Political sociology. M., 2002. Blonden P. Political
leadership. M., 1992. Vasily M.L., Vershinin M.S. Political science. M., 2001.
Gaman-Golutvin O.V. Political elite - definition of basic concepts //
Political studies. 2000. No. 3.
Gaman O. Regional elites of modern Russia: touches to the portrait // Dialogue, 1996. No. 8.
Karabushenko P.L. Political education for the formation of the elite // Polis, 2000. No. 4.
Lenin V.I. Children's disease of "leftism" in communism // Paul. collected works T. 41.
Machiavelli N. Sovereign. M., 1990.
Maltsev V. A. Fundamentals of political science. M., 2002.
Mills R. The ruling elite. M., 1959.
Nietzsche F. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. M., 1990.

TOPIC 5 POLITICAL SYSTEMS AND REGIMES.
STATE.

One of the broadest categorical concepts in political science, which gives a systematic description of political phenomena and processes in close relationship and interaction with the environment, is the concept of a political system. In its broadest interpretation, this concept includes everything related to politics.
5.1. THE STRUCTURE OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE SOCIETY
The subjects of political activity are classes, nations, other social communities, political organizations, individuals.
Political relations in society - the relations of classes, nations, other social communities, as well as individuals-subjects of political relations
The political organization of society - political institutions, public institutions, i.e. the controlling part of the political system Political consciousness of society - political ideologies, morality, traditions, norms of social and political life.

The political system consists of a number of subsystems: institutional (the state and its bodies, political parties and pressure groups, the media, the church, etc.); normative (socio-political norms of a legal and non-legal nature, political traditions and rituals, etc.); communicative (all sorts of forms of interaction both within the system (for example, parties - the state, pressure groups - parties, etc.), and between the political system and the economic sphere, as well as between the political system of one country and the political systems of other countries);
functional (the dynamics of political life, the totality of means and methods of exercising power).

The main purpose of the political system is the direction and management of public affairs.
Political leadership is the definition of strategic goals and perspectives community development, management - their implementation.
The political system in all its diversity of structural elements and functions acts as a means of social integration and containment of destructive influence. social differences on the functioning of the social organism as a contradictory, but unified whole.

5.2. MAIN FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS

The functional side of the political system is covered by the concept of "political regime".
In political science, the following typology of political regimes is most common:
A totalitarian political regime is a regime of "all-consuming dominion" that intervenes indefinitely in the lives of citizens, including all their activities in the scope of its control and coercive regulation.
As "generic signs" of this mode, the following are usually distinguished:
1. the presence of a single mass party headed by a charismatic leader, as well as the actual merger of party and state structures. This is a kind of "party-state", where the central party apparatus occupies the first place in the power hierarchy, and the state acts as a means of implementing the party program; monopolization and centralization of power, when such political values as subordination and loyalty to the “party-state” are primary in comparison with material, religious, aesthetic values in motivation and evaluation of human actions. Within the framework of this regime, the boundary between political and non-political spheres of life ("the country as a single camp") disappears. All life activities, including the level of private, personal life, are strictly regulated. The formation of authorities at all levels is carried out through closed channels in a bureaucratic way;
2. The "autocracy" of the official ideology, which is imposed on society as the only true, true way of thinking through massive and targeted indoctrination (media, education, propaganda). At the same time, the emphasis is not on individual, but on "cathedral" values (state, race, nation, clan). The spiritual atmosphere of the society is distinguished by actual intolerance towards dissent and "other action" according to the principle "who is not with us is against us";
3. a system of physical and psychological terror, a regime of a police state, where the basic "legal" principle is dominated by the principle "only what is ordered by the authorities is allowed, everything else is prohibited."

Totalitarian regimes traditionally include communist and fascist.
An authoritarian regime is a non-democratic state system, characterized by a regime of personal power, "arbitrary" dictatorial methods of government.
Among the "generic" features of this regime:
1. power is unlimited, beyond the control of citizens, and is concentrated in the hands of one person or group of persons. It can be a tyrant, a military junta, a monarch, etc.;
2. reliance (potential or real) on force. An authoritarian regime may not resort to mass repression and may even be popular among the general population. However, in principle, he can allow himself any action in relation to citizens in order to force them into obedience;
3. monopolization of power and politics, prevention of political opposition, independent legal political activity. This circumstance does not exclude the existence of a limited number of parties, trade unions and some other organizations, but their activities are strictly regulated and controlled by the authorities;
4. The replenishment of leading personnel is carried out through co-optation, and not through pre-election competition; there are no constitutional mechanisms for succession and transfer of power. Changes of power often occur through military coups and violence;
5. renunciation of total control over society, non-intervention or limited interference in non-political spheres, and above all in the economy. The authorities are primarily concerned with issues of ensuring their own security, public order, defense and foreign policy, although it can also influence the strategy economic development, carry out active social policy without destroying the mechanisms of market self-regulation.
In this regard, the authoritarian regime is often called a mode of manifestation with limited moralism: "Everything is allowed except politics."
Authoritarian regimes can be divided into rigidly authoritarian, moderate and liberal. There are also such types as populist authoritarianism, which is based on the leveling-oriented masses, as well as national-patriotic, in which the national idea is used by the authorities to create either a totalitarian or democratic society, etc.
Authoritarian regimes include:
Absolute and dualistic monarchies;
Military dictatorships, or regimes with military rule;
Technocracy;
Personal tyranny.

A democratic regime is one in which power is exercised by a freely expressing majority. Democracy in translation from Greek - literally the power of the people or democracy.
The initial basic principles of democracy, without which this form of human community is practically impossible, are:
a) people's sovereignty, i.e., the primary bearer of power is the people. All power comes from the people and is delegated to them. This principle
does not involve the adoption of political decisions directly by the people, as, for example, in a referendum. It only assumes that all holders of state power received their power functions thanks to the people, i.e., directly through elections (deputies of parliament or the president) or indirectly through representatives chosen by the people (a government formed and subordinate to parliament);
b) free elections of representatives of power, which presuppose the existence of at least three conditions: freedom to nominate candidates as a consequence of the freedom to form and operate political parties; freedom of suffrage, i.e. universal and equal electoral right on the principle of "one person - one vote"; freedom of voting, perceived as a means of secret voting and equality for all in obtaining information and the opportunity to carry out propaganda during the election campaign;
c) subordination of the minority to the majority with strict observance of the rights of the minority. The main and natural duty of the majority in a democracy is respect for the opposition, its right to free criticism and the right to change, following the results of new elections, the former majority in power;
d) implementation of the principle of separation of powers. Three branches of government -
legislative, executive and judicial - have such powers and such practice that the two "corners" of this peculiar "triangle" can, if necessary, block the undemocratic actions of the third "corner" that are contrary to the interests of the nation. The absence of a monopoly on power and the pluralistic nature of all political institutions is a necessary condition for democracy;
e) constitutionalism and the rule of law in all spheres of life. The law prevails regardless of the person, everyone is equal before the law. Hence the "frigidity", "coldness" of democracy, that is, it is rational. The legal principle of democracy: "Everything that is not forbidden by law is allowed."
Democracies include:
presidential republics;
parliamentary republics;
parliamentary monarchies.
REGIMES: the nature and measures of the exercise of power; the attitude of people to power; status of horizontal structures; the nature of the prohibitions; ideals of power; ideals of political behavior.
DEMOCRATIC. The power is representative in accordance with the law; the choice of specific holders of power by the people; horizontal social structures are the basis of the political system; everything that is not prohibited by law is allowed; morality observance of laws; morality, obedience to the law, professionalism, activity.
LIBERAL. Dialogue of power with independent groups, but its outcome determines power; the influence of society on power; the expansion of any organizations other than those claiming power; everything is allowed, except for the change of power; morality, competence, strength; activity, critical conformism, professionalism.
AUTHORITARY Emergence of public structures not controlled by the authorities; alienation of the people from power; existence in professional spheres is possible, but not of a state character; what is not related to politics is allowed; competence, strength; professionalism, obedience, powerlessness.
TOTALITAR General unlimited control and violence; merging of public consciousness with power; destruction of any horizontal structures; only that is allowed. what is ordered by the authorities; omnipotence; enthusiasm, typicality.

The central institution and power core of any political regime is the state. What do we mean by "state"? In historical terms, the state is an institution of political expression of the social need for ordering and centralization. In the "war of all against all" people would simply destroy each other if such an instrument of ensuring the integrity of society as the state did not arise. According to one of the Russian philosophers, the state does not exist to create heaven on earth, but to prevent earthly life from finally turning into hell.
From this point of view, the state can be defined as a social organization that has ultimate power over all people living within the boundaries of a certain territory, and has as its main goal the solution of common problems and ensuring the common good while maintaining, above all, order. A distinctive feature of the state is the monopoly on the legitimate, i.e. prescribed by law, coercion and violence. This is the monopoly right to levy taxes in order to cover the costs associated with the activities of the state and the maintenance of a special layer of state officials. This is also a monopoly on the issue of banknotes, the legal personification of the nation, i.e. its external representation as a sovereign subject of international relations, etc.

5.3. DISTINCTIVE FEATURES AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE STATE
Signs:
coercion
State coercion is primary and
priority in relation to the right to coerce other subjects within the given state and is carried out by specialized bodies in situations determined by law.
Sovereignty
The state has supreme and unlimited power over all persons and organizations operating within historically established boundaries.
Universality
State power is a "universal" supreme power, acting on behalf of the whole society and extending its influence to the entire given territory.
Attributes:
Territory
Determined by the boundaries separating the spheres of sovereignty of individual states
Population -
Citizens of the State over whom his authority extends and under the protection of which they are even abroad
Apparatus -
The system of organs and the presence of a special "class of officials" through which the state functions and develops
In structural, institutional terms, the state appears as an extensive network of institutions and organizations that embody the three branches of power: legislative, executive and judicial.

TOPIC 6. STATE
The legislative power at the macro level is represented by the parliament, which establishes laws, i.e., develops and approves new ones, supplements, changes or abolishes existing ones. In a democracy, the parliament also performs the function of making the most important political decisions. Being elected directly by the people, he acts as the spokesman of the people's will and for this reason is the most important legitimizing body.

Scheme of the formation of parliament

The executive power is represented by the government and administrative and managerial bodies. The structure of the executive state bodies includes ministries and departments, control and supervisory authorities, the armed forces, law enforcement agencies, the state security service, etc. This part of the government in a democracy carries out the main political decisions made by the legislature. At the same time, the government has the constitutional right to make its own political decisions and by-laws related to the implementation of its managerial functions.
The judiciary is represented by a system of judiciary and a statute of judges who are independent and subject only to the law. The court embodies the highest legality in the state and plays a major role in resolving conflicts that arise in various spheres of life.
The state apparatus is a part of the mechanism of the state, which is a set of state bodies endowed with power for the implementation of state power.

Let's imagine the structure of the state apparatus on the example of the Russian Federation.

Regardless of the type, the state performs the following functions:
protection of the state system;
prevention and elimination of socially dangerous conflicts;
maintaining a common domestic policy for the country as a system of its specific manifestations (social, economic, financial, cultural, etc.);
protection of the country's interests at the international level (foreign policy functions), etc.

From the point of view of the form of government (i.e., the way the supreme power is organized), two main types of the state are distinguished: the monarchy and the republic.

Monarchies are:
absolute, when all power, limited by no one and nothing, belongs to the monarch (Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates);
dualistic (dual), where the power of the monarch in the field of legislation is limited by a representative body (parliament), for example, Jordan, Morocco, etc .;
parliamentary, where the monarch is, as it were, a national symbol and rather reigns than rules. In this case, real power is concentrated in the hands of the government and parliament (Great Britain, Belgium, Holland, etc.).
Republics are divided into:
- Presidential (classic example - the United States), when elected, most often directly by the people, the president simultaneously acts as head of state and head of government. He directs domestic and foreign policy, is the supreme commander of the armed forces. The president appoints cabinet ministers who are responsible to him and not to parliament.
Under a presidential republic, the legislative and executive branches of power are rigidly separated and enjoy considerable independence. Parliament cannot pass a vote of no confidence in the government, and the president has no right to dissolve parliament. Only in the case of serious unconstitutional actions or crimes on the part of the president can he be impeached, and he is prematurely removed from power (the case of President R. Nixon).
The relationship between Parliament and the President is based on a system of checks, balances and interdependence. Parliament can limit the actions of the president through laws and through the approval of the budget. The President usually has the right of suspensive veto on the decision of Parliament;
- parliamentary, when the government is formed on a parliamentary basis (usually by a parliamentary majority) and is only formally responsible to parliament. If necessary, the latter can express a vote of no confidence in the government, which entails either his resignation or the dissolution of parliament and the holding of early elections.
The government has executive power, and often legislative initiative, as well as the right to petition the president to dissolve parliament. Unlike a presidential republic in a parliamentary one, membership in the government is compatible with a parliamentary mandate. Although the head of government (prime minister, chancellor) is not officially the head of state, in reality he is the first person in the political hierarchy. The president, as the head of state, most often performs only representative functions (Italy, Germany, etc.);

Mixed (semi-presidential: Austria, Portugal, France, etc.) They have a strong presidential power, which is combined with effective parliamentary control over the activities of the government. Later, he is responsible both to the parliament and to the president. Russia also belongs to an adjacent type, combining the features of both a parliamentary and a presidential republic.
On the basis of the territorial device, they distinguish:
a unitary state in which there is one constitution, a unified system of higher authorities, law and legal proceedings, a single citizenship. The administrative-territorial parts of such a state do not have political independence;

Federation, i.e., a union state, consisting of state entities with a certain legal and political independence. The constituent parts of the federation (republics, states, provinces, lands, etc.) are its subjects and have their own administrative-territorial division. Each subject of the federation has its own constitution, corresponding to the federal one, issues legislative acts that do not contradict the federal ones, etc.;

A confederation, in other words, a union of states that maintain an independent (sovereign) existence and unite in order to coordinate their activities on certain issues, most often in the field of defense, foreign policy, transport and communications, etc. Usually confederations are short-lived.

When characterizing a democratic state, there are also such concepts as:
legal state, in which the constitution and law prevail. The state itself and all social communities, as well as the individual, respect the law and are in the same position in relation to it;

A social state is a state that guarantees its citizens a certain level of social protection and security worthy of a person, and also seeks to create relatively equal starting opportunities for everyone.

Civil society - a set of social formations: groups, collectives, united by specific economic, ethnic, cultural, religious interests, implemented outside the sphere of state activity.

In modern science, civil society is defined as an autonomous socio-economic life. Collectively, it is presented economic organizations, enterprises, cooperatives, charitable organizations, cultural, ethnic, religious associations, interest clubs. Civil society performs the functions of an "intermediary" between the state and the individual. It is it that protects the individual from the state, provides guarantees for human rights, puts the activities of the state under control. It also becomes the guarantor of the stability of the rule of law.

The prerequisites for the formation of civil society are: the transition to a market economy, the emergence of specific group interests, an increase in the level and quality of life, the growth of the "middle class" of the educated and socially active part of society, the creation of legal guarantees for the free activity of independent public associations mastery of universal human norms and values.

TOPIC 7. POLITICAL PARTIES AND PRESSURE GROUPS.
What are the parties as key subjects of the "political market", producers of political goods?
In the Marxist tradition, parties are viewed as the highest form of organization of a particular class or stratum, covering its most active part, reflecting its fundamental political interests and pursuing long-term class goals. Parties as political organizations directly participate in social and political life, express their attitude towards the existing government, are published in the name of preserving and strengthening this government or changing it.
In the liberal democratic tradition, parties are interpreted as organized political forces that unite citizens of the same political tradition and serve to win or participate in power in order to realize the goals of their adherents. By embodying a person's right to political association with other people, parties reflect the general group interests and goals of heterogeneous sections of the population (social, national, religious, etc.). Through this institution, people put forward howling group demands to the state and at the same time receive requests from it for support in resolving certain political issues.
From this point of view, parties are institutionalized instruments for shaping and representing the political aspirations and goals of social class forces. They are a kind of intermediaries between the public and state authorities.
Usually there are four main characteristics of the party.
Firstly, every party is the bearer of a certain ideology or, at least, expresses a specific orientation of the vision of the world and man.
Secondly, this is a relatively long-term association, i.e. an organization with a specific structure and territorial dimension (national, regional, local, and sometimes international).
Thirdly, the goal of any party is the conquest of power or participation in it along with other parties.
Fourthly, each party seeks to ensure itself the support of the people - from inclusion in its membership to the formation of a wide circle of sympathizers.
The following are distinguished as internal groups and associations within the party: party leaders; party bureaucracy;
party leaders
party bureaucracy
think tank, party ideologists;
party asset;
ordinary members of the party.
If a party is successful in an election, this number also includes:
"party members are legislators";
"members of the party are members of the government."
A significant role in determining the political weight and influence of the party is also played by those who are, in general, outside of it:
"party electorate", i.e. those who vote for a party in elections;
"Party patrons" who provide some support to the party.
In general, according to the type of structural ties, the party can be represented by three concentric circles:

From the priority goal of the party - the struggle for power - follow its functions such as:
development of an ideological doctrine and program as a kind of "declaration of intent";
political socialization of the masses, i.e. the formation of public opinion, the involvement of citizens in political life, ensuring their support for the goals and program of the party;
training and promotion of leaders and elites for all levels of the political system, etc.

There are many criteria by which political parties are classified:
By social sign there are class parties, interclass (interclass), "grab everyone" parties;
By organizational structure and the nature of membership - personnel and mass, with clear and formally defined principles of membership and with free membership, with individual and collective membership, etc.;
in relation to the place in the political system - legal, semi-legal, illegal, ruling and opposition, parliamentary and extra-parliamentary;
in terms of target and ideological attitudes, methods and forms of action - radical, liberal, conservative; communist, socialist and social democratic; Christian, etc.

Multi-party system is the soul of democracy. Democracy minus the multi-party system is nothing but a dictatorship. The benefit of a multi-party system is that:
Firstly, political issues under it receive comprehensive coverage. Every social need finds its defenders and critics;
secondly, there is an opposition that does not forgive the authorities' mistakes. It restrains bureaucratization, forces the government to act effectively.
The second most massive organized subject of the political market are interest groups and pressure groups. This concept refers to organizations of various types, whose members, not claiming the highest political power in the system, are trying to influence it to ensure their specific interests. This is their fundamental difference from political parties.
These groups include: workers' unions;
farmer (peasant) organizations and unions;
professional associations of entrepreneurs;
feminist, environmental, human rights, pacifist, etc. movement;
unions of veterans Operates on the basis of creation I;
philosophical clubs and societies, etc.

Literature

Aron R. Democracy and totalitarianism. M., 1993.
Arendt X. The origins of totalitarianism. M., 1996.
Butenko A.P. From totalitarianism to democracy: general and sipific // Socio-political journal. M., 1995. No. 6.
Vasily M.L., Vershinin M.S. Political science. M., 2001.
Kamenskaya G.V., Rodionov A.L. Political systems of the present. M., 1994.
LedyaevVT. Forms of power: typological analysis // Political studies. 2000. No. 2.
Pugachev V.P. Political Science: A Student's Handbook. M., 2001.
Solovyov E.G. The phenomenon of totalitarianism in the political thought of this and the West. M., 1997.
Sumbatyan Yu.T. Authoritarianism as a category of political science // Social and humanitarian knowledge. M., 1999. No. 6.
Tocqueville. Democracy in America. M., 1992.
TsigankovAL. Modern political regimes: structure, typology, dynamics. M., 1995.

TOPIC 8. POLITICAL CULTURE AND POLITICAL SITUATION

Political culture can be viewed as a toric conditioned to a qualitative characteristic of the political sphere of society, including the level of development of the subject of politics, his political activity and the results of this activity, "objectified" in the relevant socio-political institutions and relations. In a narrow sense, it is a set of ideas of one or another national or socio-political community about the world of politics. Just as culture as a whole defines and prescribes certain norms and rules of behavior in various spheres of life and life situations, political culture defines and prescribes norms, behaviors and “rules of the game” in the political sphere. It gives the individual the guiding principles of political behavior, and the collective - a system of values and orientations that ensure unity.
An analysis of the state of political culture makes it possible, for example, to explain why institutions of state power that are identical in form in different countries have different functional purposes, or why institutions of power that are democratic in form and constitutional norms in individual countries can comfortably coexist with a totalitarian regime of power.
Political culture includes a set of political knowledge, norms, rules, customs, stereotypes of political behavior, political assessments, political experience and traditions of political life, political education and political socialization, characteristic of a given society.
Political culture is a certain way of thinking and a set of ideas about the world of politics, about what is acceptable to the majority of the population and what will be rejected, despite the efforts of the initiators of political innovations. For example, if the majority of members of society are carriers of a patriarchal political culture, then for them the totalitarian or authoritarian regimes of power can be recognized as quite legitimate. And representatives of a democratic political culture will perceive such regimes of power as political tyranny.

8.1. STRUCTURE OF POLITICAL CULTURE.
Political culture is a complex phenomenon, consisting of a whole complex of interrelated components. Consider some of them: Value-normative - political feelings, values, ideals, beliefs, norms, rules.
Cognitive - political knowledge, ways of political thinking, skills
Evaluative - attitude to the political regime, to political phenomena, events, leaders.
Installation - stable personal guidelines of behavior, orientation to certain actions in certain conditions.
Behavioral - readiness for certain actions in a certain situation, and, if necessary, participation in appropriate actions.
In addition to the components, the levels of political culture can also be distinguished:
Worldview level - our ideas about politics and its various aspects.
Civilian level - determination of one's political status in accordance with existing opportunities.
The political level is the definition of one's attitude to the political regime, to one's allies and opponents.
Attitudes towards politics, towards the political regime may change depending on certain events. People belonging to different social strata and classes, ethnic groups and nations, etc. evaluate events differently. Therefore, the political culture of society, as a rule, is divided into a number of subcultures. For example, the subculture of one region may differ significantly from the subculture of another; one social group - from another, etc. In addition, new and traditional components interact in every culture.
8.2. FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL CULTURE.
Political culture plays important role in the formation and development of political institutions and relations.
Political culture performs the following social and political functions in society:
value-normative - the creation of common "rules of the game" in the political sphere of society;
identification and integration - understanding of common belonging to a particular social group or society as a whole;
normative and regulatory - the development of certain norms and styles of political behavior, ways for citizens to protect their interests and exercise control over power;
motivational - the ability to choose certain motives for one's political activity (passivity);
socialization - the assimilation of the basic elements of political culture, the acquisition of social and political qualities that give the individual the opportunity to freely navigate and function in the political sphere;
communicative - ensuring the interaction of all subjects and participants in the political process on the basis of common norms, values, symbols, patterns of semantic perception of political phenomena.
8.3. TYPES OF POLITICAL CULTURE.
Political culture in the course of its historical evolution goes through a complex process of formation and development. For each historical epoch, for each type of political systems and social communities, its own special type of political culture is characteristic.
Patriarchal type - for this type, the characteristic features are: low competence in political problems, lack of interest of citizens in political life, orientation to local values - community, clan, tribe, etc. The concept of the political system of society and the ways of its functioning is completely absent. Community members are guided by leaders, shamans and other significant, in their opinion, personalities.
The subject type is guided by the interests of the state, but this type of personal activity is not high, it assimilates the performing roles and functions well, therefore it is easy to be manipulated by various kinds of politicians, officials, political adventurers. Individual political activity of this type is quite low, and interest in politics is weak.
The concept of a political system is already present, but there is no idea of the possibilities to somehow influence the government.
Activist type - involves the active involvement of citizens in the political process, participation in the choice of government bodies and the desire to influence the development and adoption of political decisions. The interest of citizens in politics is quite high, they are well informed about the structure and functions of the political system and strive to realize their political interests with the help of constitutional rights.

8.4. POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION.
Socialization is the process of assimilation by an individual of social norms and cultural values inherent in the society in which he lives. Political socialization is part of general socialization. Its specificity lies in the fact that in the process of political socialization, the individual assimilates the norms and values of a predominantly political culture, patterns of political behavior, knowledge and ideas about the political sphere of society.
Political socialization is the process of integration (entry) of a person into the political life of society.
A feature of the first stage of political socialization is that the child learns certain political norms and cultural patterns, but does not yet understand their essence and meaning.
At the second stage (the school period of life), the individual realizes his connection with society and politics, acquires general ideas about the political system, political regimes. Based on the acquired political knowledge, ideas and general social experience, the individual forms a political identity and basic political attitudes.
The most responsible period in the life of an individual is the third stage of political socialization. This is the period when a person reaches the age of 18 and, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, becomes a full-fledged citizen, capable of electing various authorities and being elected to one or another power structure. However, even during this period, some restrictions may arise in front of the individual in the political sphere of activity. For example, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, citizens who have reached the age of 35 and have permanently resided in Russia for at least 10 years can be elected president of the Russian Federation. The legislation of the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation also provides for some other restrictions for people applying for certain elective positions in power structures.
The process of replacing the knowledge, norms, values and roles previously acquired by the individual with new ones is called resocialization.

LITERATURE
Almond G., Verba
C, Civic Culture and the Stability of Democracy \\Political Studies. 1992.№4
Artemov G.P. Political sociology. M., 2002.
Gazhdiev K.V. Political culture: a conceptual aspect // Political studies. 1991.№6
Gradinar I.B. Political Culture: Worldview Dimension. 4.1. St. Petersburg, 1996
Ionin L.G. Culture and social structure// Sociological studies. 1996. No. 2,3.
Kamenets A.V., Onufrienko G.F., Shubakov A.G. Political culture of Russia. M., 1997.
Kamenskaya G.V. Political culture of SA//International economy and international relations. 1993.№4
Kozyrev G. I. Introduction to political science. M., 2003
Maltsev V. A. Fundamentals of political science M., 2002.
Pivovarov Yu.S. political culture. Methodical essay. M., 1996.
Political science. Proc. For universities / Resp. ed. V.D. Perevalov. M., 2001. Pugachev V.P. Political Science: A Student's Handbook. M., 2001

TOPIC 9 WORLD POLITICAL PROCESS

9.1. POLITICAL PROCESS: ESSENCE AND STRUCTURE.
The political process is the process of functioning and development of the political system of society. It occurs as a result of the interaction (opposition) of the subjects and participants of the policy regarding a certain object (objects). "Subjects" are active actors in the political process, acting consciously and purposefully. "Participants" take part in the process, sometimes not fully realizing the meaning and significance of what is happening. Sometimes they can be involved in certain activities accidentally and even against their will. But in the course of the development of certain events, the statuses of "subjects" and "participants" can change places.
The political process is made up both of purposeful conscious efforts of subjects of political activity (individuals, social groups, political parties, state bodies, etc.), and as a result of interactions that arise spontaneously, regardless of the will and consciousness of the participants in the process. The political process can be represented as a multi-level system consisting of many subsystems, many processes. Typically, political processes are divided into basic and peripheral.
The basic political processes involve a variety of ways to include broad sections of the population (directly or through representative bodies - parties, movements, etc.) in political relations with the state regarding the implementation of certain socio-political requirements. In such cases, we are essentially talking about the participation of large social communities in political management. Political processes can also be called basic, as a result of which political decisions are made that affect the interests of large social communities, society as a whole, or processes aimed at developing and changing the political system.
Peripheral political processes can develop at the regional or local level of socio-political interaction; can reveal the dynamics of the formation of individual political associations (parties, blocs, pressure groups, etc.). Core and peripheral political processes tend to stimulate each other. For example, if the peripheral process touches on the actual problems of "big" politics, or the intervention of the central authorities is necessary to solve the problems raised by it, then in these cases the peripheral political process can turn into a basic one. And, conversely, a process that has arisen as a basic one can be “lowered” for solution to a peripheral level, if it is appropriate.
Political processes are also divided into global and partial. In global processes, the cumulative actions of political subjects can dramatically affect the functioning, change and development of the political system as a whole. Partial processes may affect a certain sphere of life or some stage (stage) of the global process.
All political processes (global, private, basic, peripheral) are explicit (open) and shadow (hidden). For example, a political rally demanding the resignation of the government is an explicit (open) process. The government's decision to increase taxes on imported goods is also an open process. But the lobbying of some law in the Duma by a group of deputies is a hidden (shadow) process. In the political systems of a number of countries there is even such a thing as a “shadow cabinet”. This is a group of influential people (part of the political elite) who do not hold official government positions, but whose opinion significantly influences political decision-making.
Political processes, depending on certain subjective and objective factors, can have different modes of flow:
mode of functioning is a simple reproduction of repetitive political relations;
the mode of development is an adequate response of structures and mechanisms of power to new social requirements and corresponding changes in the political system;
decline mode - the collapse of the integrity of the political system due to the fact that the decisions it makes are no longer able to adequately respond to changed relations, and the political regime itself loses stability and legitimacy.
To “evaluate” any political process, the following steps must be taken:
find out the content of its object - the problem being solved;
determine the composition of the participants and their interests;
to study the nature of the relationship between the participants in the process;
determine the scope and possible outcome of the process.

9.2. SUBJECTS AND PARTICIPANTS OF THE POLITICAL PROCESS.
The concepts of "subject" and "participant" are not always identical.
The subject is an active author of the political process, the bearer of subject-practical political activity, capable of influencing the object of politics.
The subject of politics can be an individual, a public group and an organization, a political organization and a movement, political institutions and state structures; social community (class, nation, ethnic or confessional group, society); political elites or counter-elites; state, groups of states, world community.
Some researchers propose to classify the subjects of politics on various grounds:
Subjects social level: classes, ethnic groups, groups, individual, electorate, mafia, military-industrial complex, merchant bourgeoisie, etc.
Institutional subjects of politics: state, party, trade union, parliament, president, university, etc.
Functional subjects of politics: army, church, opposition, lobby, mass media, transnational corporations, etc.
Participants in the political process are individuals, groups, organizations, labor collectives, social communities, etc., taking part in certain political events or political life in general.

9.3. PERSONALITY AS A SUBJECT OF POLICY.
Personality is a set (system) of socially significant qualities that characterize an individual as a member of a particular society, as a product of social development.
A person as a subject of politics is an individual who takes an active and conscious part in political activity and has a certain influence on the political process. There are several options for participation (non-participation) of an individual in politics:
Active active participation, when politics is a profession, vocation and/or the meaning of life for the individual.
Situational participation, when an individual participates in politics by solving his personal or group problems, or by performing his civic duty, for example, taking part in elections or expressing the position of his social group at a political rally.
Motivated non-participation, as a protest against the current policy.
Mobilization participation, when an individual is forced to take part in certain socio-political activities or events. Such participation is most characteristic of totalitarian and authoritarian regimes of power.
Removal from any political events, unwillingness to participate in the political process, due to personal apoliticality and passivity. In the first three options described above, a person acts as a subject of politics, since in one way or another he can influence the political process. In the last two variants, the individual is not the subject of politics. Apolitical and passive individuals are easily amenable to political manipulation and, as a rule, become the object of “foreign” politics. In such cases, it is appropriate to recall the words that have become an aphorism: "If you do not want to engage in politics, then politics itself, sooner or later, will engage in you."
The degree of an individual's involvement in politics depends on many subjective and objective factors. We list some of them:
the level of political culture, civic consciousness and individual social activity personality;
the degree of infringement of personal and group interests and the desire to protect them;
objectively established conditions and prerequisites that stimulate socio-political changes in society;
the socio-political and economic situation that has actually arisen in the society (region);
possession of various types of capital (economic, political, symbolic, etc.), which allows the individual to rely on the support of certain social groups.

9.4. POLITICAL ACTIVITY.
Activity is the conscious actions of people aimed at satisfying their needs, transforming the world around them and their own nature. Human activity is deliberately purposeful. Political activity is the conscious purposeful actions of policy subjects pursuing individual, group goals and interests. It is, as a rule, the prerogative of political professionals who carry out their functional responsibilities. At the same time, if political professionals are part of state structures, then their activities should be a set of organized actions of political subjects aimed at realizing the general tasks of the political system of society. If this activity of political subjects is in opposition to the ruling regime, then it (the activity) can pursue completely different goals and interests.
The most important categories of political activity are rationality, efficiency and legitimacy. Rationality involves the expression of social needs, expediency and scientific validity of political goals and ways to achieve them. Efficiency is the real results (visible trends) of political activity. Legitimacy is the approval and support of political activities by the citizens of the country.
But in real life, political activity can be irrational, ineffective and illegitimate. Such a negative result of political activity depends not only on professional qualities political subjects and whether they have necessary resources but also on their political motivation. If the ruling political elite, through its political activities, creates the most favorable conditions for a relatively small layer of rich people, ignoring the interests of the rest (for example, as has been done since the beginning of the 90s of the 20th century in Russia), then for the majority of citizens of the country and society as a whole, such political activity will be irrational, ineffective and illegitimate.
Main types of political activity:
struggle for political power and power. This type of political activity is one of the main ones, since the possession of power or participation in the exercise of power gives the subjects great opportunities to achieve their goals;
participation in the formation and development of the implementation of political decisions;
activities in non-state political institutions (parties, socio-political organizations and movements, etc.);
organizing and holding mass social and political events (rallies, demonstrations, strikes, pickets, etc.);
motivated non-participation in certain political events, for example, as a form of protest against a policy that does not meet the interests of the author or his social group.
Depending on the direction of actions, researchers distinguish three main groups of political activity1:
Activities within the political system itself, such as the interaction between political institutions.
The action of the political system in relation to the environment, for example, the adoption of managerial decisions in order to change certain relations in society.
Actions of the surrounding social environment aimed at political institutions of power, for example, expressing support or distrust of the government, participating in the formation of institutions of power in elections, etc.
Political activity is also divided into practical and theoretical. Each of these activities is determined, as a rule, by the specifics of the political subject.

9.5 POLITICAL RELATIONS.
Political relations arise as a result of the interaction of subjects and participants in the political process regarding the conquest, installation and use of political power.
The subjects of political relations are individuals, social and political groups, organizations and movements, large and small political communities, public and political institutions, the state. The aggregate object of political relations is political power, which finds its manifestation in all spheres of political life. It (power) is not only an object of political relations, but also a means of their streamlining, organization, change, regulation, etc.
The nature of political relations largely depends on the political regime of power. In a totalitarian state, these are relations of a rigid hierarchy of subordination and dependence on the vertical of power. In a democratic society, political (power) relations are more likely to perform the functions of management, regulation and control. Here, along with vertical (power) relations, a lot of horizontal connections and relations arise - relations of cooperation, rivalry, compromises, dialogue, etc.
A great influence on the formation and development of political relations is exerted by the legal framework existing in the society (state), for example, the constitution. The Constitution, as a rule, spells out the ways of interaction and the limits of the powers of the main subjects of politics, and indicates options for resolving possible conflict situations.
The next factor that has a significant impact on political relations is the political culture of the country's citizens. If a society is dominated by a patriarchal or subservient political culture, then it is much easier for the ruling elite to manipulate people and form political relations that meet the interests of these elites.
Political relations also depend on the effectiveness and efficiency of the policy pursued in the country, on the behavior and activities of certain policy subjects.

9.6 POLITICAL PARTICIPATION.
In each state, depending on the political regime, on the level of development of civil society and the political culture of citizens, on historical traditions and other factors, one or another form and degree of involvement of citizens in the political process develops. This involvement of ordinary citizens in politics is called political participation.
Political participation should be distinguished from such similar concepts as political activity and political behavior.
Political activity is a set of organized actions of political subjects aimed at the implementation of the general tasks of the political system. Political activity is the implementation of political strategy and tactics carried out primarily by institutionalized subjects of politics (state bodies, political parties, pressure groups, etc.). In other words, this is the activity of political professionals performing their functional duties. Although non-professional and non-institutionalized participants cannot be completely excluded from general political activity.
Political behavior reflects the qualitative characteristics of participation and activity, the motivational and emotional component in the actions of an individual or group participating in a particular political process.
Political participation is the involvement of citizens in the political process, in certain political actions. Here we are talking, first of all, about the participation in politics of ordinary citizens who do not pretend to the “title” of professional politicians, for example, the participation of ordinary voters in an election campaign.
In political theory, the following reasons for the involvement of an individual and groups in the political process are distinguished:
rational choice theory - a person seeking to realize his interests, seeks to benefit from political participation;
participation as a desire to protect one's interests, for example, to prevent a reduction in production in a certain industry;
participation as an expression of loyalty to the existing regime of power or as an act of support for a particular political party or movement;
wish life success and public recognition through participation in politics;
understanding of public duty and realization of one's own civil rights;
understanding (realization) of the social significance of the upcoming political event;
mobilization participation - the use of various methods of coercion or encouragement in order to attract citizens to participate in a particular political event.
There are two main forms of political participation of citizens in the political process: direct and indirect.
Direct - this is when an individual or group personally participates in a particular political event, for example, in the election of members of parliament.
Indirect participation is carried out through their representatives. For example, a popularly elected parliament, on behalf of its voters, forms the government, issues laws, that is, it carries out the political administration of the country. Problem researchers share different kinds participation into three main types:
participation-solidarity aimed at supporting the existing political system;
participation demand or protest aimed at a partial or radical change in the existing course of development of society;
devsantnoe participation - the use of unconstitutional, including violent methods to overthrow the existing regime.
The role, significance and forms of political participation largely depend on the type of political system, the political regime of power.

9.7 POLITICAL BEHAVIOR.
Political behavior is a qualitative characteristic of political activity and political participation; it is how a person behaves in this or that situation, in this or that political event.
The political behavior of an individual (group) may depend on many factors. We list some of them:
Individual emotional and psychological qualities of the subject or participant in the political process. For example, for the behavior of V.V. Zhirinovsky is characterized by such properties as emotional richness, unpredictability, shocking; for V.V. Putin - prudence, balance in words and deeds, outward calmness.
Personal (group) interest of the subject or participant in political actions. For example, a deputy strongly lobbies a draft law that interests him, although he is rather passive when discussing other issues.
Adaptive behavior is behavior associated with the need to adapt to the objective conditions of political life. For example, it is difficult to imagine a daredevil who, in the crowd, glorifying some political leader (Hitler, Stalin, Mao Zedong) would shout out slogans denouncing this leader.
Situational behavior is behavior that is conditioned by a specific situation, when the subject or participant in political action has practically no choice.
Behavior based on moral principles and moral values political author. For example, Jan Gust, Bruno and many other great thinkers could not "give up principles" and became victims of the Inquisition.
The competence of an actor in a particular political situation or political actions as a factor of behavior. The essence of "competence" is how well the subject or participant is in control of the situation, understands the essence of what is happening, knows the "rules of the game" and is able to adequately use them.
Behavior driven by political manipulation. This is when people are “forced” to behave in one way or another with lies, deceit, populist promises.
Violent coercion to a certain type of behavior.

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BASIC LITERATURE FOR THE COURSE "POLITICAL SCIENCE"

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ADDITIONAL LITERATURE TO THE COURSE "POLITICAL SCIENCE"

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If you systematize all the variety of folding. Dialectical contradiction

VARIETY AND UNITY OF THEORIZING ABOUT WAYS OF ORDERING AND SYSTEMATIZING ACTIVITY

1. Characteristics of the proposed approach.

2. Science and comprehension.

Tab. 3. Morphology of knowledge

3. Variety of ordering methods.

Tab. 4. Ordering and systematizing activity.

4. Theory and theorizing.

5. Variety of forms of theorizing about ordering and systematization.

6. Fan matrices in ordering and systematizing activities.

7. Application and perspectives.

Literature

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Workshop Lesson

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